| The Jin and Yuan Dynasties was an important stage of social transformation in China,and it was a period of turbulent transition in Shanxi’s regional society.The main period of this study was from 1127 to 1368,during this period,Shanxi was under the control of the Jin and Yuan ethnic minority regimes.The research took the Shanxi society in the Jin and Yuan Dynasties as the subjects of investigation,based on the historical materials of more than 800 stele inscriptions from the Jin and Yuan period in Shanxi,as well as the four main aspects,being the Buddhism and Taoism,the belief in temples and gods,the construction of water conservancy and the development of the clan reflected in the inscriptions.This was a study on the regional social history.In addition to stele inscriptions,it also investigated historical records,anthologies,genealogy and other materials,and also focused on field investigations.Through a "bottom-up" perspective and "long-term" research methods,this studied the complex mentality of the grassroots people of Shanxi when they faced social upheaval in Jin and Yuan Dynasties,and their initiative in adapting to social changes,all of which were reflected in the above-mentioned four aspects.The paper aimed to restore the grassroots people from the vague “Qian shou”(the common people)under wars and replacement of dynasties,to active actors,interpreting behaviors of these people under social change from the perspective of humanistic care,and finally discussing this unique transmutation process of social integration during the Jin and Yuan Dynasties in Shanxi,with the profound impacts on follow-up generations.The paper was divided into nine chapters,in chronological order,set the time division of Jin and Yuan,starting from the "Shanxi religion and society in the Jin Dynasty" as the first research object.Since the Song Dynasty,the Buddhist belief atmosphere in Shanxi had been quite strong,and the measures of Huizong in the Northern Song Dynasty to promote Taoism among the people also gave Taoism a certain basis for believers.The large and medium-sized temples that existed before the Jin Dynasty gained development through the management of temple property,the collection of apprentices,and the doctrine propagation,etc.Regarding the religious management system,the difference between the Jin Dynasty and the previous Dynasties was the development of approaches for the common people to buy temples.Under the influence of this policy,the grassroots people had the conditions to establish legal temples in the villages,and communications and competitions between local elites and the monks had also become frequent.Many monks with economic strength and moral prestige actively participated in social public affairs,and some newly created temples had become public spaces shared by villagers.The second chapter discussed the social conditions under the frequent disasters of Jin Dynasty and the upsurge of private innovation of water conservancy.The weather of Jin and Yuan Dynasties was between the cold periods with large climate fluctuations in history.Affected by extreme weather,drought became the biggest obstacle to production and development in Shanxi.Although the disaster relief activities of the national and local elites could alleviate some of the difficulties,there might be incapable situations sometimes.In order to improve the living condition and increase production efficiency,in addition to making good use of the water conservancy projects constructed in previous dynasties,a distinctive feature of Shanxi water conservancy development in the Jin Dynasty was the creation of a large number of civilian water channels and the gradual use of water springs.With the development of water conservancy projects,civil disputes over water rights had also emerged.The people determined their water rights through different conditions such as financial input,work,family inheritance,and moral factors.At the same time,through case studies of different water cases,it could be found that the national determination and folk traditions reflected in the water use policies had gradually reached a delicate balance,and the official system of indirect management of the water conservancy system through local elites had gradually formed.The third chapter observed the relationship between the belief in temple gods in Jin Dynasty and Shanxi society.Due to frequent disasters,the temple gods who were believed to be able to protect the local weather and conditions had become another way for the people to place hope.During the Xining period of Northern Song Dynasty,large-scale grants to temple gods were developed,and Shanxi prefecture and county officials obtained official titles and temple quotas for some local temple gods by pleasing grants from the emperor.Since the Jin Dynasty did not grant temple gods on a large scale again,the group of gods who received the grant basically maintained the pattern of the late Northern Song Dynasty.In the management of temple gods of Jin Dynasty,local officials,Confucian scholars and local elites maintained and reinterpreted some of the temple gods in accordance with the Confucian classics.Through the interpretation of the case of Tangwang Temple in Shanghang Village,Zhangzi County,the internal structure of civil organizations,the rituals of praying for rain,and the public’s views on setting up " temporary temples" in another place could been visually observed.In addition,due to the attraction of economic interests,the monks and Taoism also gradually participated in the worship of temples and gods.The fourth chapter studied the development of the clan in Jin Dynasty.Due to the social turmoil after the Jingkang Event,the original paper genealogy owned by the local clans were difficult to meet the needs of social development.In some areas,steles were used as a carrier to record family lineages and other information.Clan activities centered on ancestor tombs in the north had also developed to a certain extent.The country encouraged living together for generations and granted official positions to the elderly over 70,which stimulated the continuous improvement of the people’s clan consciousness to a certain extent.In addition,this paper also noted the close connection between clan and religion in Shanxi society.The fifth chapter detailed the social changes in Shanxi during the Mongol and Yuan dynasties.The first was the rise of marquises of the Han people.During the Mongol-Yuan period,local armed forces and former Jin Dynasty officials gained local military power through surrender and attachment to Mongolia.As the Internal inheritance,it was therefore called "Marquis".For the Shanxi region that experienced war in the Mongol and Yuan dynasties,the marquis played a positive role in consolidating its influence,developing production,and recruiting exile.The second change was the elevation of political and economic status of the monkhood.Due to the social activities of famous monkhoods such as Qiu Chuji and Haiyun,the Mongolian rulers allowed the monkhood to be tax-free.The Quanzhen Sect has expanded rapidly in Shanxi,focusing on the construction of the Chunyang Longevity Palace and the inscription and publication of the "Xuandu Treasure".Buddhism,through three monastic debates,won the support of the Mongolian rulers and suppressed Quanzhen Sect.Third change was the relative decline in the status of Confucian scholars.Since the Mongol and Yuan Dynasties did not conduct imperial examinations for more than 80 years,Confucian scholars had to find new ways for officialdom and scholarship,and emphasized their authority in social affairs.The suspension of imperial examinations objectively provided conditions for Confucian scholars to penetrate into local society.The sixth chapter mainly studies the construction of Shanxi’s clan in Yuan Dynasty.The marquises in Shanxi continued their family official careers through "roots and feet" and their own talents.They were the key roles in the clan activities.During this period,families with different cultural backgrounds,such as marquises,commoners,and Confucian scholars,actively used "Ancestor Tomb Steles" and "Genealogy Diagrams" to record family development.Dhvaja and tomb towers were used as supplements to the Ancestor Tomb Steles,which had also been followed in Yuan Dynasty.The creation of the Ancestor Tomb Stele was based on common and simple records,and Confucian scholars played a guiding role in it.Women and monks were not excluded in the genealogy.Some marquises and local elites also created "Family Buddha Hall" as a place for ancestor worship.The form of Tomb-guard Temple was also developed in the Yuan Dynasty.On the whole,the clan activities in Shanxi during this period had distinct regional characteristics.The seventh chapter discussed the relationship between water conservancy and society in Yuan Dynasty.Yuan Dynasty was a period when major achievements were made in water conservancy construction in Shanxi.The non-governmental water conservancy management system played an increasingly prominent role on the basis of previous dynasties.The local elites represented by the canal chief also had deepened participations in water conservancy management,human resources organization,water regulation and other aspects.In some areas,officials had played an important role in promoting "bottom-up" water use experience and consolidating the authority of the canal chief.In areas with relatively complete water conservancy regulations,such as Hongtong,the common water god ritual was associated with the identity of water-use household.The power of the canal chief included not only the supervision of canal affairs and the distribution of water rights in real life,but also the establishment of authority in the water god ritual system,competition for resources was also an important part.It could be seen that the act of consolidating water rights through theocracy and legends had proved to be very effective.In addition,the ownership of water rights by monks and other new social elites is also one of the focuses of this chapter.The eighth chapter mainly talked about the relationship between temple beliefs and society development in Yuan Dynasty.Compared with that in Jin Dynasty,the management of temple beliefs in Yuan Dynasty was looser,and untitled temple gods gained loose development space in the whole society.The local Confucian scholars in Yuan Dynasty valued the local cultural traditions and the actual interests of the people,and they became the defenders of the legitimacy of local temples and gods.Due to the natural disasters in the natural environment in Yuan Dynasty,local officials,Confucian scholars,elites and the people gathered in the local temples,hoping to achieve the goal of eliminating disasters and improving the weather through prayer.The chaos in the local shrines was related to the disorder of state management.However,in the late Yuan Dynasty,peasant uprisings and frequent wars,and the harsh social atmosphere made officials and the people overly dependent on the efficacious effects of folk shrines,and whether they met the requirements of "official temples" was reduced to a secondary position.On the other hand,religious personnel represented by Jiang Shanxin and the monks of Guangsheng Temple had extensively participated in the repair activities of local temples and temples,as well as in the worship of temples and gods in order to win the cooperation of social elites.The ninth chapter studied the causes and consequence of the “downwards” of Shanxi religion in Yuan Dynasty.After "Zhiyuan Burning Scriptures ",Quanzhen Taoism’s management was limited to the north of the Huai River,and the function of local temples had also changed from coordinated expansion to mainly operating temple properties.Shanxi Buddhism,centered on Mount Wutai,received political and economic support from the rulers of Yuan Dynasty.This paper noted that after the emperor Yuanshizu,many temples and temples in Shanxi had erected temple monuments.This activity reflected the survival pressure of Buddhism and Taoism in the grassroots society.Through the investigation of the case of Miao Daoyi,a Taoist priest in Zezhou,it could been found that the development environment of religion in Yuan Dynasty was quite different from that at the beginning of this dynasty.As the master of Quanzhen Taoism,Miao Daoyi’s achievements were limited to religion,rarely got involved in social affairs.The monks in local society actively adapted to the new pattern of regional society centered on the village community,actively participated in social public affairs,and strived to create a good social image. |
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