A Contrastive Study Of Existential Sentences In English And Chinese-A Cognitive Linguistic Perspective

Heavily grounded on philosophy, cognitive linguistics, cognitive neurology, syntax, semantics, logic and other disciplines, this dissertation has conducted a contrastive study on existential sentences (ES) in English and Chinese from a cognitive linguistic perspective. A qualitative and quantitative blended method is adopted in this study. It combines qualitative explanations based on adequate instantiations with quantitative data concerning with ES derived from the British National Corpus (BNC) and the Chinese novel Fortress Besieged (Weicheng).This dissertation is developed with the classic issues on ES in English as a main thread, exploring the relevant facets of ES in Chinese simultaneously, then drawing universalities and particularities between them, and finally providing a cognitive explanation. A universal cognitive model of ES has been established, which can be employed to produce varied ESs in different languages. After careful and detailed investigation we have been led by our linguistic facts and figures to the following arguments.From an angle of cognitive linguistics, the meaning of"there"is characterized by"dual-properties". On the one hand,"there"functions to be a mental space builder, and on the other hand it still holds a weak trace to dexis. The relation between"there"and"NP"is one between a trajector and a landmark. In this case, the trajector"there"remains a compositional space in form of physical or abstract location, emphasizing an inclusive relationship between a location and its inner existential entities. Existential sentences in English in general cannot be converted into its so-called counterparts (often considered as marginal sentences). They differ in schema, one is a container, and the other a source-path-goal schema; the former stressing inclusion while the latter representing emission, transmission and consumption of energy. They are two independent constructions with different meanings, which are caused by varied individual"construal"of the same scene.It is argued that agreement of ES in English is brought about by iconicity, and its receptions are caused by a shift of perspective from a cognitive domain of physical space to a quality space. Existential entities (NP) in English ES bear a plural inflection, which reflects quantitative iconicity. The agreement required by verbs reflects a combination of quantitative iconicity and marked iconicity, and the asymmetric iconicity between [Vs+NP] and [V+NPs] constructions reflects a shift of space being occupied or left in a limited location affected by space frame in our experiences since space whose indicator is"-s"cannot disappear on its own.Disagreement is a mere consequence of formal observation. From the perspective of conceptual semantics there is no such a problem of disagreement, which is in nature a shift of cognitive domain. There in English ES remains a search domain of space, which is not sufficient to establish a mental contact with a uniquely determined instance of a type of entity between a speaker and a hearer. Therefore an indefinite article is logically required. There is no sharp boundary between an indefinite and a definite modifier occurring before an existential entity; on the contrary, if an ES can meet the two prerequisites of unique mental contact and focus of information (salient information) a definite modifier can also be felicitously accepted. The choice of an indefinite or a definite modifier is decided by whether a mental contact with a unique instance between a speaker and a hearer can be established. The conceptualization of existential verbs in English ES tends to be rightward specifically in terms of direction, which can be schematized as V→E, V standing for verb, E for entity, the arrow for direction. This particular way for English existential verbs to conceptualize has caused two consequences: only a search domain There can be employed as a trajector and an existential entity cannot; the number of non-be existential verbs in English ES is greatly restricted.Existential sentences in Chinese have two constructions. The first is a container in terms of schema where a location is employed as a trajector, and an existential entity as a landmark. The second is a source-path-goal schema in which the position of a trajector and a landmark is just reversed. These two schemata stress varied relations, the schema of a container emphasizes a relationship of being embraced, while the second one does a normal flow of energy. The two constructions of ES in Chinese can be converted into each other, where a trajector and a landmark are complementary. The choice of a constituent as a trajector, a location or an entity, depends upon varied individual"construal"of a scene. In addition, a special construction in Chinese,"man N1 de N2"(N2 of full N1), has also been explored in the dissertation. The author argues that"man N1 de N2"is a type of special existential construction derived from an existential sentence whose temporal domain expressed by"shi"(be) is omitted. Hence a hypothesis termed"Asymmetrical Space and Temporal Domain in ES"(ASTDES) is proposed and successfully employed to explain why"man N1"(full N1) can be crossed out when the whole construction is used as a subject. What is more important is that this hypothesis can predict that"man N1"can also be deleted when it is used as an object, rather than the opposite as argued in some previous investigation. This hypothesis has been positively confirmed by instantiations.Unlike English,Chinese is not characterized by inflections. Chinese nouns are not characterized by plural inflections and verbs don't bear inflectional endings either, instead, quantifiers and particles are employed as compensations. The location subject of ES in Chinese is also a search domain of space, since a search domain is not sufficient enough to establish a mental contact with a uniquely determined instance of a type of existential entity an indefinite modifier is logically required. Nevertheless, if Chinese receptions can be satisfied with unique mental contact and focus of information they are still felicitous. The conceptualization of existential verbs of Chinese ES tends to be alternative in terms of direction, rightward or leftward, which can be schematized as V←→E, V standing for verb, E for entity, the arrow for direction. This particular way for Chinese existential verbs to conceptualize has deduced two different consequences: both an existential entity and a search domain of space can be employed as a trajector; the number of verb which can be made use of in Chinese ES is larger than that in English.Universalities between ES in English and Chinese have been identified. First, when expressing a concept of existence the cognitive domain of space is considered as a primary focus of prominence, a trajector; while the existential entity as a secondary focus of prominence, a landmark; both emphasizing a relationship of being included. Second, both ESs may be classified as stereotypical and peripheral subtype, and each subtype differs in degree of being typical. Third, the existential entities in both languages can be seen as bounded or unbounded regions in terms of physical space, and can be transformed into each other by foregrounding a boundary or homogeneity in light of abstract quality space. Fourth, the existential entities in English are characterized by quantitative iconicity, so are those Chinese quantifiers, but the extent to quantitative iconicity embodied by Chinese quantifiers, as a general rule, is not as great as by English entities. Fifth, the existential verb in Chinese is constrained by its location subject, in this case, only"V+ zhe"pattern is licensed, which indicates that energy flows and is consumed from an entity to a location; and the existential verb in English is also restricted by its logical subject (an entity), indicating the same flow of energy from an object to a location. Sixth, as far as definiteness restriction in ES is concerned, several common points have been recognized: an indefinite modifier is a stereotypical phenomenon and a definite one turns out to be peripheral though both are faced with receptions; an indefinite modifier is a logical requirement of a mental contact with a general set of instances while a definite one is a logical consequence of a mental contact with a uniquely determined instance; there is no absolute division between an indefinite determiner and a definite one, the latter can be appropriately accepted under the two conditions of unique mental contact and focus of information; the physical locations in both existential sentences are always definitely represented. Seventh, the identical direction of both existential constructions is deduced by the same embodied and social experiences since concepts are characterized by embodiment. Also both English and Chinese speakers share the similar schema of actions, which are neurologically stored in a parallel distributive fashion in mind.Particularities between ES in English and Chinese have also been identified. First, the structure of ES in Chinese is representative conforming to the universal law of existential sentences with SVO order; whereas the empty pro-form of ES in English proves to be less representative. Second, Chinese ES possesses two structures schematic of a container and a chain respectively while those in English are merely represented by one structure schematic of a container, the other of a chain considered as a marginal production. Third, the existential entities in English bear plural inflections reflecting a kind of quantitative iconicity whereas those in Chinese do not despite of the word"men", which is often thought of lacking in general quantitative iconicity. However, Chinese quantifiers can serve for this function as a compensatory means and they reflect quantitative iconicity to some extent. Fourth, the existential entity in English ES is required to be in concord with a verb reflecting a combination of quantitative iconicity and marked iconicity. At the same time asymmetrical iconicity is also reflected in the construction of [Vs + NP] or [V+ NPs] where an indicator of space"–s"is shifted from V to NP or vice versa suggesting the unification of space being left or occupied (-s after V representing space being left, -s after NP representing space being occupied) because space is usually in a limited location since it is connected with a space frame in mind derived from our life experiences. As we know space cannot disappear on its own. However, the existential verb in Chinese is not required to conform to an existential entity. Fifth, the reference system in English and Chinese differs in encoding, the former is often encoded by a definite or an indefinite article plus a noun while the latter is usually done by such a construction as"numeral + quantifier + noun"or"this / that +quantifier + noun". The Chinese language is rich in quantifiers while there is no such a class of words in English. This linguistic phenomenon implies that the cognitive manner of Chinese people is to pay more attention to the exterior and shape of things, they adopt an approach called"from outside to inside"; whereas English people pay more attention to homogeneity and inner consistency of things adopting an approach named"from inside to outside", which neglects its outer shape of things in conceptualizing objects. Sixth, the quantity of bounded entities in English existential sentences is explicitly represented by a concrete linguistic code indicating individual or mass while that in Chinese is implicitly represented by a linguistic code alternatively interpreted as individual or mass. Seventh, conceptualization of existential verbs in English and Chinese differs in direction. The uni-directionality of English existential verbs and bi-directionality of Chinese ones are brought on by diverse parameters of action schema including force intensity and direction.Therefore, grammar is not autonomous and constrained by conceptual semantics. Grammar is symbolization and structuring of semantics. There is an interactive interface between grammar and semantics. Semantics does not only include the objects of a scene but also a particular way to construe the scene. The cognitive models based on the similar embodiment and social experiences can account for the universalities, while the particularities can be explained by peculiar cognitive manners and encodings characterized by people in different cultures.Finally, this dissertation has successfully established a general cognitive model of basic existential sentence, which consists of three categories such as a location, a process and an existential entity, their alternative prominent positions and diverse cognitive manners to conceptualize these three categories (see diagram 8-1). This general cognitive model can minimally produce seven types of existential sentences in different human languages. After the test of illustrations in ten human languages with four types of word order, such as SVO (Chinese, English, Russian, French, German, Finnish), SOV (Hindi), VSO (Palestinian Arabic, Tagalog), and VOS (Yucatec, Mayan), the general cognitive model of basic ES has been proved universally effective.This dissertation has important theoretical significance in the following aspects. First, a general cognitive model of basic ES has been successfully established, which can give general theoretical guidance to the study of ES. Second, ES in English has been deeply and systematically explored from a new angle of cognitive linguistics with some new findings, which provides a new effective perspective and will enrich the paradigm and enquiry case. Third, ES in Chinese has also been deeply and systematically investigated with some new insights, which can throw some light on the research into ES in Chinese. Fourth, the important role that underlying cognitive model plays in our language is revealed through the comparison between crucial facets of ES in English and Chinese, which will deepen the knowledge about nature of language. That is, grammar is not autonomous, and the structure of conceptual semantics is closely related to human daily experiences; semantics is not the direct encoding of objective properties but a product of the interaction between objects and human cognitive experiences. Fifth, this new research paradigm makes up the weak point on meaning present in the paradigm of generative grammar and provides an illustrated case which can serve as a support for the existence of language interface, especially between grammar and meaning. Sixth, this study on ES is more psychologically real and natural compared with the previous ones; and this more psychologically real and natural perspective can, to some degree, be probably extended to the study of other subfields on Chinese language.The present study has done some creative things. The dissertation firstly conducted a contrastive study of ES in English and Chinese from a new cognitive linguistic perspective. The latest paradigm has been systematically and consistently employed in the enquiry of ES in English and Chinese. The universalities and particularities between ES in English and Chinese are firstly drawn and interpreted from the promising cognitive linguistic angle. In particular, a general cognitive model of basic ES has been established and illustrated universally effective by linguistic facts from ten human languages in the world.