On Officials' Posthumous Titles In The Ming Dynasty

This dissertation, by studying the officials'posthumous titles in the Ming Dynasty, explores the influence of the relationship between posthumous title and national politics on the posthumous title in the Ming Dynasty, regarding its law and regulations, types and staged features. Besides, this study aims at summarizing the law of the officials'posthumous titles in the Ming Dynasty and its dynamic relationship with national politics.The officials'posthumous titles in the Ming Dynasty inherited and developed from those of previous dynasties. Posthumous title is an integral part of traditional Chinese culture, coming into being in the Western Zhou Dynasty during which the norm of etiquette was comprehensively established in China. In order to show respect to the honorable person, people addressed them by posthumous titles in the place of their personal names. That is why posthumous title represents noble culture at its very birth. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the wars among noblemen for hegemony devastated the rite, which then spurred on those scholar officials, represented by Confucius, to advocate proper addresses for people. So posthumous titles are not simply addresses for the passed noblemen, but should be granted according to their conducts when alive.When The First Emperor of Qin put an end to the wars among noblemen and began the centralized and despotic rule, he abolished posthumous titles so as to strengthen the supreme honor of the emperor. The first emperor of Western Han Dynasty, Liu Bang, taking lessons from Qin which went to its doom so quickly in forsaking ethic rule for legal rule, reexamined the posthumous titles of Pre-Qin days and their effects on seizing and enhancing the regime. Considering the need of ethic rule, he strictly laid down the rules about officials'posthumous titles and adopted ranks of nobility for them. The Kingdom of Wei and Jin, and the Northern and Southern Dynasties again witnessed China's division for as long as 380 years, during which period the regimes used posthumous titles as one of the strategies of winning the support of talents. Therefore, posthumous titles then were not confined to the rank of nobility in the Han Dynasty, but were conferred on those officials who made outstanding contributions to the royal government. Besides, the Northern Minorities'regimes conferred posthumous titles much more leniently than the Han Dynasty, which resulted in the overwhelming amounts of positive posthumous titles over negative colored ones.When it came to the Tang Dynasty, the ranks of posthumous titles were clearly stipulated, with a special organ named Taichang Ministry determining posthumous titles of officials. At that time, discussing and criticizing posthumous titles were prevalent. Besides, two-charactered posthumous titles took the previously dominant place of one-charactered posthumous titles. During that period, posthumous titles connected with intellect were considered as the best, which was closely related with the development and perfection of imperial civil examination system in Tang and Song Dynasties. The minority regimes coexisting with the Song Dynasty and the ensuing Yuan Dynasty which reunited China were irregularly strict and indiscriminate in granting posthumous titles. Yuan Dynasty is especially influential on the Ming Dynasty in its conference of posthumous titles on the relatives of the favorite officials on the one hand and the outstanding officials of the previous dynasty on the other.The posthumous title in the Ming Dynasty, based on those of the preceding dynasties, particularly Tang and Song Dynasties, obtained following unique features by taking its own political situation into consideration. It is the Ming emperors that had the rights to confer officials'posthumous titles, which is in accord with the need of strengthening the imperial rule in the Ming Dynasty. Generally speaking, posthumous titles were conferred on the civilian and military officials above the third rank, outstanding in conducts and political achievements, and without any record of being reported to the imperial court when in office. Although posthumous titles were granted to the officials below the fourth rank who made extraordinary achievements, they were rare. Strictly speaking, there were no negative colored posthumous titles in the Ming Dynasty. They were few discussions and criticisms of posthumous titles, which were suppressed by the imperial rule. In the Ming Dynasty, two-charactered posthumous titles became established practices. All the features concerning posthumous titles in the Ming Dynasty mentioned above varied in different phases, owing to the influences of various factors.The features of the posthumous titles of officials in the Ming Dynasty were especially clear when compared with those of non-officials, so we must examine them against the background formed by both types. Only in this way can we properly grasp the complicated relationship between the officials'posthumous titles and national politics. To start with, we need to make clear what the most decisive factor is in deciding on the official's posthumous title. It is undeniable that the official rank formulated by the law of posthumous title is the primary factor. This part, the social situation in which officials found themselves and their relationship with the officials around them are also important. These factors decided when the involved officials got their posthumous titles and how officials of different social status could get the titles they deserved. That is why there were a lot of ways of granting posthumous titles. No matter in which way the officials of the Ming Dynasty got posthumous titles, they can be classified according to their conducts when alive and their posthumous titles. By classifying the posthumous titles of the officials, we might have a glimpse of the qualities required from the officials in the Ming Dynasty.The kind of officials who were in the position to get posthumous titles in the Ming Dynasty differed in various phases, which was determined by the political situation. During the rule of Hongwu, posthumous titles were only conferred on military officials, whose ranks were strictly laid down. Because the first emperor of Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang, emphasized military affairs, posthumous titles in that period were mostly related with military and loyalty. Emperor Yong Le seized the throne from the legitimate inheritor by force, so posthumous titles were still primarily conferred on military officers, whereas only four civil officers got posthumous titles. Although the numbers of civil officers who got posthumous titles increased gradually after the rule of Emperor Hong Xi, they were still less than those of the military officers even during the reign of Tian Shun. After Emperor Cheng Hua, the civil officers who were granted posthumous titles exceeded military officers, which is due to the political development of the country. From then on, the practices of currying favor with the influential and corruption prevailed in the official circles. Some posthumous titles were seen to be granted those officials of the preceding dynasties who were upright and accomplished in their political careers.Meanwhile, the conferences of posthumous titles then were not so strict and meticulous as those before the reign of Tian Shun. Some wicked officials even stole posthumous titles. So posthumous titles became the political tool controlled by privileged officials, which exerted terrible influences on the conferences of posthumous titles after the reign of Emperor Jia Jing.The conference of posthumous titles on the officials during the reign of Jia Jing was already clearly politically oriented. Those officials who shared political stances with the emperor were given laudatory posthumous titles, whereas those dissidents were either deprived of posthumous titles or granted the worst ones. When it came to the reigns of Emperor Wan Li and Chong Zhen, which were near the end of the Ming Dynasty, various regulations established at the beginning of Ming Dynasty were breached. The law of officials'posthumous titles is no exception. It has lost its severity, for those who deserved posthumous titles did not get them, whereas those who were not worthy of them either seized or were granted posthumous titles. The earlier principle guiding the conference of posthumous titles was replaced by power. Imperial government's calling for determining posthumous titles of its officials and those of the previous dynasty by collective discussions resulted in the prevailing discussions of posthumous titles. This, in addition to the fact that posthumous titles then were granted every five years, caused some posthumous titles to be procrastinated. Posthumous titles then ceased to be a way of encouragement and exhortation, but became the site where officials disputed and shirked responsibilities. So during the reign of Emperor Chong Zhen, when the country suffered from both domestic troubles and foreign invasions, people seldom mentioned officials'posthumous titles.The Southern Ming Dynasty, as the continuation of the Ming Dynasty, still used posthumous titles as a way of commending officials. During that period, a lot of upright and outspoken officials of the Ming Dynasty were granted posthumous titles. But the conferences were reckless, for the majority of the officials getting posthumous titles were below the fourth rank, which was unprecedented in the history of Ming Dynasty. But we should not completely negate this practice, for it might have more or less prompted the officials to defend it against the Qing Dynasty.