Loving-Kindness And Purity: The Two Dimensions Of A New Religion In Thomas Hardy’s Fiction

Thomas Hardy is regarded as one of the greatest novelists and poets in Englishliterature. He is a writer who demonstrates a deep concern for man’s suffering and miseryin a world governed by an indifferent force. After his loss of faith, a vision of a newreligion，which he believed Christianity would modulate into, remained rooted in his heartthroughout the remainder of his life, for in his view it could play an indispensible role inenabling man to experience a happy existence. Because few critics have noticed histhought on a new religion in his early fiction and the development of his concept ofreligion, further studies are required. This dissertation is intended to explore the theme andsignificance of the new religion in Hardy’s major novels.Hardy’s new religion is born out of Christianity. It attaches importance to the externalaspects of Christianity, but rejects its supernatural and dead creeds. It promulgates theethics of loving-kindness and purity, both coming from the moral teachings of Jesus Christ,whom Hardy regards as a great mortal teacher of morality and reformer of Judaism.Loving-kindness is synonymous with Jesus’ concept of loving your neighbour，which notonly requires men to selflessly and devotedly extend their love and concern to all peopleand forgive others for their transgressions but also is a touchstone of all other Christianlaws. Purity, in the eyes of Jesus, refers to freedom from selfish and base motives. In otherwords, a pure man is one who has cleansed his heart of selfish desires and always acts outof altruistic motives. Therefore, it is crystal clear that motivation is the basis for ethicalassessments. It is theorized that a promulgation of a new religion occupies a vital positionin Hardy’s novels. Furthermore, his concept of the religion in his fiction follows a line ofevolution, in response to the development of his philosophical ideas and the changing spiritof the time. That is, his fiction in the1870s and1880s promulgates a religion ofloving-kindness; the fiction in the1890s, the last period of his novel-writing career, adds anew dimension—purity—to the new religion. In view of manageability, this dissertation isdevoted to the exploration of Hardy’s concept of new religion in his three majornovels—The Return of the Native, Tess of the d’Urbervilles and Jude the Obscure—anddetails the continuity and development of his religious thoughts. This dissertation consists of three main chapters, in addition to the Introduction andthe Conclusion. The Introduction of the dissertation consists of four sections: a review ofEnglish and Chinese scholarship on Hardy’s religious concept, which reveals that Hardy’sthought on a new religion in his early fiction and his concept of purity in his later fictionhave failed to be noticed by Hardy critics; a brief account of the process of thedevelopment of Hardy’s concept of religion,which should be considered in two stages:the complete acceptance of Christianity and the gradual formation and promulgation ofhis concept of new religion; a definition of two key terms:“loving-kindness” and “purity”,which are synonymous respectively with Jesus’ loving your neighbour and his concept ofpurity;and also a brief introduction of the scope of this research and the structure of thedissertation，which aims to explore the theme and significance of the new religion inHardy’s major novels.Chapter One investigates the religion of loving-kindness in The Return of the Nativewith two sections respectively dealing with tragedies for lack of loving-kindness andloving-kindness in the world of chance. Central to this chapter is the argument thatloving-kindness is the only means to keep man’s pain and suffering down to a minimum inthe chance-governed world. Before engaging in concentrated discussions, this chapter firstbriefly examines the influence, on Hardy, of the scientists, philosophers and reformers ofChristianity of the time who may have contributed to his loss of faith in God; hisconviction of an indifferent and unconscious force that dictates life on this earth, whichincarnates itself as chance; and his belief in the valuable function of a newreligion,which Christianity should develop into and which can arouse sympathetic feelingsthat are able to alter men’s moral natures. Section One investigates how lack ofloving-kindness leads to tragedies in the chance-governed world. Through the depiction ofthree major characters who are followers of Hellenism, positivism and Christianityrespectively, Hardy reveals that Hellenism and positivism can not enhance moral qualitiesand that Christianity impairs moral qualities. In default of loving-kindness they are selfish,giving way to passions, prejudices, and ambitions. It is bound to happen that they are atvariance with each other. Chance increases the contradictions between people andcontributes to the deaths of two female characters. The tragedies could have been averted ifthey had hastened to forgive each other. The ensuing section, centering on how loving-kindness contributes to man’s felicity in the world of chance, uncovers the author’sovertone that loving-kindness is the only means to keep man’s pain and suffering down toa minimum. Two minor characters, who possess the moral quality of loving-kindness,always act altruistically. They are also in chance’s claw but they endeavor greatly to keeppeople away from the pain which would have been caused by chance. However, one’sgood intentions do not necessarily reap benefits in the chance-governed world. Thissuggests that in the chance-governed world no man is a savior and that the avoidance oftragic happenings leans on the combined efforts of everyone. Therefore, it is absolutelyimperative that the religion of loving-kindness be promulgated.Chapter Two next examines Hardy’s concept of purity, the second dimension of themature new religion, in Tess of the d’Urbervilles. The introduction of this chapterconducts a brief examination of the development of Hardy’s philosophical ideasinfluenced by Schopenhauer and Von Hartmann and the increasing popular tendency tocriticize prevalent moral and social ideas. This examination provides a foundation for thefollowing two sections of the chapter. The first section probes into Hardy’s view that theVictorian concept of a fallen woman is erroneous and ridiculous in that it attachesimportance to external performance rather than motivation. This ethical assessment basedon actions, coming from the Old Testament, is entrenched in the minds of all people,including the heroine, a victim and her husband, an enlightened young man. Theunderlying cause of the suffering and death of the heroine is nothing else but the ethicalassessment. The second section focuses on Hardy’s defense of Tess’s purity in terms ofChrist’s ethical assessment based on motives. Controlled by the Immanent Will, theheroine’s loss of virginity and her temporary sexual relationship with the rapist can notspeak volumes for her impurity because she acts inadvertently. The heroine’s purity isunquestionable in that on coming to her senses she chooses to leave her rapist and seducerin spite of his attempts to use his wealth to insure her loyalty. Being a pure woman, shealways acts voluntarily for the benefit of others at the sacrifice of her own interests. In asense it is her purity that brings about her tragedy. It can be concluded that the novelsuggests that in the world governed by the Immanent Will Jesus’ concept of purity canguide people to proper ethical assessments.Chapter Three is devoted to the investigation of Hardy’s criticism in Jude the Obscure of the Victorian institution of marriage for its immorality made crystal clear by Jesus’teaching on love and purity. The social and literary concern for the marriage problem isbriefly analyzed at the beginning of the chapter to justify his criticism of the Victorianinstitution of marriage.Section One probes into the attack, through the examination of twobad marriages, on the Victorian institution of marriage in the name of loving-kindness.Through the analysis of the reasons for the sufferings of two major characters trapped intheir respective marriages, it is discovered that in a world controlled by the Immanent Willthere ineluctably exist ill-matched marriages. The Victorian institution of marriage is inopposition to Jesus’ commandment of loving others in that it does not grant people theright to divorce on grounds of mental suffering. Section Two examines Hardy’s criticism ofthe Victorian institution of marriage in the name of purity. Through the scrutiny of twocharacters’ motives for their violation of the matrimonial codes, the motives of one of themfor remarriage, and their different trajectories, the immorality of the institution is clearlyexposed because it brings misery to those who flout the marriage law out of altruisticmotives and benefits to those who comply with it out of egoistic motives. To conclude, byusing loving-kindness and purity as a touchstone, Hardy bitterly criticizes the Victorianinstitution of marriage and expresses his hope that the marriage laws should be modified.The dissertation concludes with a short summary of its main contents, followed by ashort account of the social and intellectual backgrounds which contribute to the formationof Hardy’s new religion. Hardy’s major novels clearly show the trajectory of the gradualdevelopment of his conception of a new religion, which reveals his constant preoccupationwith human misery and suffering.It should be noted that the religion of loving-kindnessand purity is an ethical system of belief without a metaphysical basis. Hardy’s firmconviction that the ethics of loving-kindness and purity should be promulgated by a newChurch consists in his view that it can evoke feelings indispensible for changing man’smoral nature. One may disagree with Hardy on the function of a new Church but can notunderestimate the immense significance of the moral values of loving-kindness and puritycommunicated in his novels.