A comparative study of mineralized biocomposites: Hierarchical structure, quasi-static and dynamic mechanical behavior, and toughening mechanisms

Antlers have a primary function in combat and are designed for sustaining high impact loading and bending moment without fracture. Learning from antler may shed a new light on traumatic bone fracture prevention and development of novel fracture-resistant, impact-absorbent materials.Antlers have a similar microstructure as bones, composed mainly of type-I collagen fibrils and carbonated apatite crystals, arranged in osteons in the compact bone and trabeculae in the cancellous bone. However, antlers have lower mineral content and consist mainly of primary osteons. The structure of antler at various hierarchical levels was thoroughly characterized and examined using various techniques and compared with bovine femur.Quasi-static mechanical tests (three-point bending, compression, and nanoindentation) were conducted on elk antlers and the results were compared to reported data. The flexural strength and elastic modulus are similar to other antlers but lower than bovine femur. However, the antler has much higher work of fracture and fracture toughness compared with bone. Dynamic behavior of antler was investigated using a split-Hopkinson pressure bar system. Results showed that antler can sustain large amount of deformation without catastrophic fracture.In situ mechanical testing under ESEM was performed to examine crack propagation in the longitudinal and transverse orientations in compact antler. Nonlinear-elastic fracture mechanics were applied to determine R-curves. The fracture toughness in the transverse orientation is much higher than that in the longitudinal orientation due to crack deflections/twists at the hypermineralized interface and the rising R-curve behavior was observed. Synchrotron X-ray computed tomography and SEM images showed toughening mechanisms, including crack deflections/twists, uncracked ligament and collagen fiber bridging.The structure and compressive mechanical properties of the mineral and protein constituents in cancellous antler and bone were investigated by complete demineralization and deproteination. Structural features of demineralized, deproteinated, and untreated samples appeared similar from the micro-scale to the macro-scale. Electron micrographs showed that the minerals were aligned in a coherent manner, forming a continuous network. Compression results showed a strong synergetic effect between the two phases. Experimental data can be modeled as cellular solids, with strong dependence on relative density. Deformation mechanisms were observed and discussed.