Crossroads of Indian country: Native American community in Denver, 1950--2005

This dissertation examines the history of the Native American community and the lives of Native Americans in Denver, Colorado, since the mid-twentieth century. During World War II and the years immediately after the war, Native Americans from rural areas, particularly from reservations, moved to cities in search of better opportunities. Selected as one of the initial destination cities for the relocation and employment assistance programs of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), Denver became a hub for Native American migrants. Although the federal government hoped to assimilate Indian relocatees by distancing them from reservation communities, the Denver Native Americans created an urban Indian community to support themselves and showed little interest in losing their tribal or Indian identities. This study first analyzes the origins of the BIA's relocation and employment assistance programs that started in 1952 and examines their influence on the early development of the Denver Native American community. A significant portion of this study explores the Denver Indians' experiences and looks at the development of their own pan-Indian community since the 1950s. By looking at how the Denver Indians confronted social and economic issues, including employment, housing, and education, this study examines how the Indian relocatees dealt with the gap between the dream and the reality of the urban environment. The development of intertribal organizations such as the Denver Indian Center, the rise of Red Power activism at the BIA offices, and the right for better education demonstrate the Denver Indians' efforts to take control over their lives. The last section of this study analyzes the contemporary and political activities of Native American people in the city focusing on two nationally-known events: the Denver Match Powwow and Columbus Day protests. The events exemplify not only the cultural celebration and political activism of contemporary Indians, but also show the continuous struggles of urban Indians. Through a combination of archival documents and oral histories, this study reveals the continuity and transformation of Denver Native American community and its members in regard to their economic, social, and cultural aspects.