| Having developed from a condition of resource abundance and low capital investment, few artisanal fisheries in Malawi were traditionally subject to any form of access-limitation. Since the 1930's, however, increased catch efficiency due to the new fishing methods, gears, and materials, combined with more recent trends of deteriorating spawning grounds and population growth, to cause the depletion of many fish stocks. For decades, the depletion of Lake Malawi's fish stocks, and the apparent disinterest among fishers to take action, was blamed on population growth and poverty, a classic example of the "tragedy" of open-access regimes.; Based on two years of ethnographic fieldwork, I present several case studies that challenge the assumptions that fisherfolk are unwilling or unable to effectively participate in fisheries co-management. Rather, the government's and donor agencies' formalized blue-print approach to the establishment of co-management institutions (known as "Beach Village Committees" or BVCs) failed to recognize the need for the informal consensus-building processes by which institutions gain local legitimacy. Instead of enlisting the support of the chiefs (who act as the primary community arbiters, mediators, and custodians of cultural norms), due to their perceived autocracy and corruptibility, the chiefs were largely excluded from the process.; I analyzed these case studies using an "organizational learning" framework, and differentiated between the outcomes of BVC empowerment (as envisioned by the government), and BVC conservation effectiveness. In most cases where BVCs tried to enact conservation regulations without the visible support of the chiefs, they have been confronted by significant resistance among stakeholders. In contrast, I present several case studies in which the active support of chiefs has enabled BVCs to achieve significant conservation outcomes due to the broad base of community support.; My analysis of organizational learning for empowerment and conservation outcomes in historical and present-day fisheries management settings in Malawi suggests that formal institutional design bench-marks are unreliable predictors of conservation success and institutional legitimacy. Instead, the extent to which stakeholders accept and support conservation regulations must be recognized as a reflection of the extent to which co-management leaders are empowered by the community.; I propose an "adaptive organizational learning" framework that explores the sources of resistance that have undermined the empowerment of fisheries co-management institutions in Malawi. By anticipating these forms of ignorance and resistance to institutional and behavioral change, resource management agencies and NGOs may be better able to support the development of the stakeholder awareness, capacity, motivation, and legitimacy that is needed to bring about the institutionalization of sustainable fishing practices. |
