The development of emotion regulation: The role of effortful attentional control and positive affect

Theories propose that the development of effective emotion regulation is based on transactions between an individual and his/her environment (Calkins, 1994; Kopp, 1989; Sameroff & Chandler, 1975). Specifically, sensitive caregiving and infant temperament may mutually influence each other and lead to the development of effective emotion regulation. However, few studies have tested this longitudinally during the first three years of life. Little is known about the early antecedents of two indicators of effective emotion regulation that are the focus of this investigation, emotion regulation flexibility and emotional resilience (the ability to experience and sustain positive outcomes (e.g., emotions) following challenge). To address these gaps, this study examined whether (1) maternal sensitivity and infant/child negative affect predict emotion regulation, (2) effortful attentional control mediates these relations, and (3) maternal positive affect moderates the relations between maternal sensitivity and effortful attentional control, and emotion regulation. Mother-infant dyads (n = 181) were observed participating in free play and problem solving tasks when the infants were 7 and 33-months-old. At 33 months, children were also observed during independent emotion and effortful control tasks. Results were that maternal sensitivity and infant negative affect at 7 months significantly predicted emotion regulation flexibility, whereas maternal sensitivity and child negative affect at 33 months predicted emotional resilience. Second, effortful attentional control mediated the relations between the predictors and emotional resilience, but not emotion regulation flexibility. Finally, maternal positive affect moderated the relations between maternal sensitivity, child negative affect, and effortful attentional control and emotional resilience at 33 months. Specifically, maternal sensitivity predicted effortful attentional control but only under conditions of low maternal positive affect. Findings support the theory that caregiver sensitivity and temperamental characteristics predict the development of long-term emotion regulation, but vary based on the developmental period and the form of emotion regulation that is examined. Effortful attentional control also appears to be an important developmental acquisition mediating these relations. In addition, maternal positive affect is an important moderator of the relations between maternal sensitivity and effortful attentional control and emotion regulation. The contributions, limitations, and implications of this investigation, along with directions for future research, are discussed.