Theological Voluntarism and the Natural Law: The Integrated Moral Theories of John Duns Scotus, John Calvin, and Samuel Pufendorf

A primary aim of this project is to challenge a prevailing assumption among contemporary moral theologians and scholars of religious ethics. It is a commonplace today that theological voluntarism and natural law theory are the mutually-exclusive contenders for the metaethical allegiance of Christians. Theological voluntarism is generally taken to hold that God's will, especially as it is revealed in the divine commands of the Bible, constitutes and/or reveals what is morally right. Natural law theory is often portrayed as affirming that what is morally right is determined by and/or known from rational deduction or from the conditions for the flourishing of human nature.;I contest the taken-for-granted opposition between theological voluntarism and natural law theory by retrieving from Christian history the moral thought of three figures who attempt to integrate these two outlooks. I analyze the moral theories of John Duns Scotus (c. 1265-1308), perhaps the first expositor of a systematic theory of theological voluntarism; John Calvin (1509-1564), a leader of the Protestant Reformation; and Samuel Pufendorf (1632-1694), arguably the first distinctively "modern" natural law theorist. These three assume, contrary to the dominant view today, that theological voluntarism and natural law theory are inherently complementary. I defend the coherence of the moral theories of these figures against numerous critics who claim that such attempts at integration are self-contradictory. If my reading of the historical sources is accurate, and if my defense of the coherence of these theories stands, then I will have identified clear counterexamples to the standing assumption that theological voluntarism and natural law theory are inherently incompatible. I will have also shown that there is room within both Catholicism and Protestantism for both theological voluntarism and natural law theory.;I prosecute my argument in six chapters. In Chapter 1, I document the frequency with which Christians treat theological voluntarism and natural law theory as incongruous and even competing alternatives. In Chapters 2, 3, and 4, I provide a close reading of the moral theories of Scotus, Calvin, and Pufendorf. I also argue, against various accusations to the contrary, that each of these figures sustains coherence while affirming both theological voluntarism and natural law theory. In Chapter 5, I identify some common patterns of thought among the integrated moral theories of these three figures. In Chapter 6, I explain the contemporary relevance of these integrated moral theories with respect to some emerging trends in Christian, ecumenical, and interreligious ethics.;Since the penultimate chapter contains the central conclusions of my project, I will highlight here the shared patterns of thought that I identify there. Methodologically, Scotus, Calvin, and Pufendorf seek to be faithful to Scripture by affirming both divine authority over the moral law and the human capacity to know this law apart from the verbal revelation of God's will. Materially, the figures all affirm the following principles. God is not under obligation to any human or subject to any external necessitation. Yet divine freedom is constrained by at least some limits: God can neither make contradictions true nor deny the supreme worth of Godself. God wills the natural law both to manifest God's glory and to promote the flourishing of human society. There is no contradiction in holding that God's will constitutes the moral right and that human reason can discern what is right in the natural law. While human reason is distorted by sin, God prevents this corruption from becoming so thorough as to make humans incapable of knowing the basic precepts of the natural law. God freely and generously wills natural laws that lead humans to the fulfillment of their nature. The paradigmatic content of the natural law includes the commandments of the decalogue and the golden rule.;The specificity and scope of these commonalities---compiled from figures as temporally, ecclesially, and intellectually diverse as these three---is notable. These patterns could serve as filters for one who wishes to sift Christian history for further examples of integrated moral theories. The same patterns might also be taken as starting points for one who wishes to construct a contemporary moral theory that integrates theological voluntarism and natural law theory.