Demons and demos: Violence, memory and citizenship in post-conflict states (South Africa)

This study examines the effects of deadly conflict and the political dynamics of memory and accountability processes, like truth commissions, to formulate a theory of citizenship development in post-conflict democracies. Based on archival research and over 300 elite and non-elite interviews I conducted in South Africa from 1999--2002, this study contributes to a growing literature on transitional justice and post-conflict democratization. I argue that emotive effects of violence present barriers to political expression long after transitions to democracy are implemented. Using South Africa as a theory-generating case, I find memory and accountability processes are related to increased political expression under some conditions. The mechanisms by which truth processes shape citizenship operate at the elite and grassroots levels. At the grassroots level, where memory and accountability processes expand opportunities for political articulation and action, we observe an expression effect. My analysis of varying political and conflict dynamics at regional and community levels suggests that the greater the intensity of violence; the more recent the conflict; and, the greater the proximity of violators and violated, the more difficult and detrimental it is to implement processes that encourage mass participation. Additionally, closed war-termination agreements make it less likely that accountability processes will be adopted and accepted. But, agreements that allow for input from outside actors and partially protect rights violators are more likely to permit justice mechanisms to be implemented. Where processes are limited by the stated conditions, we observe a silencing effect. These effects are exemplified by variation between two regions. Truth processes contribute to an expression effect by lowering emotive barriers to political expression; shaping beliefs about violence; and, altering practices of conflict resolution. At the elite level, when accountability processes obtain participation from rights violators, there is a rule-of-law effect. This effect is realized through strategic interactions that push for adherence to procedural fairness; allow perpetrators to demonstrate acceptance of accountability measures; and, generate a dialogue about the ethics of violence. However, this study shows that the efficacy of non-prosecutorial accountability institutions as efficient mechanisms for obtaining information from rights violators depends upon the credible threat of a worse outcome.