| Parasites have plagued humans before the era of our earliest recorded history.About 5 billion people infected from parasites(helminth and protozoa)worldwide.According to recent WHO report global burden of viruses like HIV and dengue are estimated 1.5 and 100-400 million respectively per annum.Parasitic infection aggravates the condition of virus infected patients and it is one of the most important causes of morbidity and mortality in virus infected peoples.We sought to characterize the epidemiology and global burden of virus co-infection in people that infected with parasites such as helminths and protozoa.In this systemic review and meta-analysis,we searched five main databases(Web of Science,Scopus,Jstor,Pub Med,and WHO database for the studies that reported the prevalence of parasite and virus coinfection,published between Jan 01,2005 to Dec 31,2020.We included thestudies which contain data about people infected with virus and parasite and allow us to establish the prevalence of parasitic infections.We excluded reviews,animals’ studies,abstract,plant studies and non-prevalence data including articles.We did a meta-analysis to estimate the global burden of major helminth/protozoa in individuals infected with virus compared with their negative counterparts,and also estimated the pooled prevalence of helminths and protozoa co-infection with virus infected people by using random effect model,and evaluated its overall infection burden.Our search identified 145050 records,394 studies met the inclusion criteria for both helminth and protozoa co-infected with virus.We estimated the pooled prevalence of 0.204%(95% CI 0.164-0.244)and0.342%(95% CI 0.342-0.371)for helminth and protozoa,respectively.The pooled prevalence of helminth co-infection was high in Western Pacific region 0.297 %(0.009-0.107,288/1116)followed by Africa regions 0.25%(95% CI 0.20-0.31,3783/17249),Regions of America 0.24 %(0.07-.,517/1750),European regions 0.09(95% C.I 0.02-0.5.74/726),South East Asian regions(0.08 %(95% C.I 0.04-0.11,381/5209)and Eastern Mediterranean regions 0.00 %(0.00-0.01,11/1918).Whereas the pooled prevalence of protozoa co-infection was high in Eastern Mediterranean regions 0.38 %(0.29-0.48,1555/5030)followed by African regions 0.36 %(0.32-40),11327/40929),South East Asian regions 0.32 %(0.26-0.39,3213/10483),American region 0.32 %(0.23-0.40,1402/5193),Western Pacific region 0.25 %(0.15-0.35,1394/7661)and European region 0.25 %(0.15-0.35),726/1021.The low-income countries have high prevalence rate for helminth 0.30(95% CI 0.22-0.38,2541/9393),followed by middle and high income countries,while in protozoa co-infection middle income countries has more prevalence 0.35(95% CI 0.32-0.39,14213/50145),followed by high and low income countries.In this study we have also estimated global number of cases from UNAIDs data,Helminths co-infection with HIV were found 7540000(4832000-10824000),and 12818000(9362000-16687000)case of protozoa co-infection with HIV.We also estimated that 105370000(37810000-231840000)and 70200000(1136000-16896000)cases of protozoa co-infection with HBV and Dengue respectively.We noted consistently higher prevalence of protozoa co-infection as compared to helminth at every aspect.Our finding also noticed that helminths co-infection with virus was high in low income countries as compared to middle and high income countries,while protozoa co-infection was high in middle as compared to high and low income countries.This study emphasizes the importance of routine surveillance for helminth and protozoa infection in HIV,HCV and dengue virus infected people that may help in halting disease progression.Schistosomiasis is one of the neglected tropical diseases that affect millions of people worldwide.Globally,it affects the economically poor countries,usually with the scarcity of clean water,improper sanitation systems,and poor hygiene conditions.Currently,no vaccine is available against schistosomiasis,and the preferred treatment is chemotherapy with the use of praziquantel.It is a common anti-schistosomal drug used against all known species of Schistosoma.The Praziquantel is not very effective against the premature stage of Schistosoma species.The drug of choice offers low bioavailability,water solubility,and fast metabolism.Mutations in parasite,co-infections and improper treatment lead to drug resistance.Parasitic infections are known to be major problem throughout the world.Parasitic infection causes mortality and morbidity and affects most of the poor regions of the world.Recent investigations of hostparasite interactions have shown significant results in terms of identifying prospective new targets for diagnostic and therapy,as well as novel vaccine targets for Helminths and protozoa.Extracellular vehicles(EVs)are tiny membrane-bound organelles discharged by nearly all types of cell.EVs have been isolated from diverse bodily fluids,including blood,urine,saliva,breast milk,amniotic fluid,ascites,cerebrospinal fluid,bile,and semen.According to recent research,EVs promote intercellular communication and are a viable therapeutic tool for the treatment of infectious illnesses.These vesicles,which include microvesicles(MVs)and exosomes,transport proteins,lipids,m RNAs,and micro RNAs from one cell to another.In this review we highlighted the origin,nature,biogenesis,and composition of EVS in helminths and protozoa,isolation of EVs,protein,and mi RNAs involved in EVs release.We further highlighted the role of EVs in cell to cell interaction,Immunomodulator and in therapeutic.Recent studies indicate that schistosomes can secrete extracellular vesicles(EVs),which play important regulatory roles in many biological processes.However,the mechanisms underlying EV biogenesis in schistosomes are poorly understood.In this study,we performed bioinformatic analyses and identified several genes putatively involved in EV biogenesis in S.japonicum,which were then confirmed by PCR.Quantitative transcriptional profiles of the selected genes indicated that they were differentially expressed in male and female worms as well as in the different developmental stages of S.japonicum.Thus,the highest expression of VAMP3 was detected in cercariae,whereas that of ARF6 was detected in eggs.RAB11 A and the Syntenin-encoding gene SDCBP were highly expressed in 14-day schistosomula and VPS4 A and RAB27 A were highly expressed in 35-day-old adult schistosomes.The expression of RAB11 A,CHMP4C,VPS4 A,and SDCBP was higher in male worms,whereas that of ARF6,VAMP3,and RAB27 A was higher in female worms.Our results are expected to provide important clues for understanding the role of EV biogenesis in S.japonicum development.In conclusion,we identified S.japonicum genes potentially involved in EV biogenesis and analyzed their homologies to such genes in the other organisms.The transcript levels of these genes differed depending on the S.japonicum developmental stage and gender.Though this is a preliminary study to analyze genes that are putatively involved in S.japonicum EV biogenesis,and the functions of these genes in EV biogenesis. |
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