The Role Of Shanghai Cooperation Organization In Countering Terrorism In The Regions Of Central And South Asia

International and Regional Organizations have always remained active actors in international relations and world politics throughout history,but the end of WWII has seen immense growth of international organizations around the globe.Similarly,the Cold War and decolonization in the decades that followed World War II steered the growth of regionalism and regionalization which in turn led to the creation of numerous multilateral regional organizations all over the world especially in the realm of security.The shifting structure of the global order and the rise of transnational terrorism necessitated the development of new systems and concerted efforts to combat the threat of terrorism.The transnational nature of security threats fostered a trend of security regionalization around the globe.To counter such regional security challenges especially related to terrorism,numerous regional organizations were established and became active players in resolving such issues.One such example of regional cooperation is the Shanghai Cooperation Organization(SCO).The imperative for collaborative counter-terrorism efforts among member nations within the Shanghai Cooperation Organization(SCO)primarily stems from the manifestations of terrorist activities in the region.Extremism,terrorism,and separatism are all deeply entrenched challenges that jeopardize the security of the entire region.Both the Central Asian Regional Security Complex(RSC)and the South Asian RSC have consistently grappled with the challenges posed by terrorism,as well as issues of separatism and extremism,influenced by diverse factors.The member nations’ peace and stability are deeply tied and inextricably linked due to several reasons,such as the porous nature of their borders.These contentious matters not only pose a direct threat to the security of individual states within these regions but also exhibit spillover effects that transcend national borders,manifesting as transnational phenomena.Consequently,recognizing the gravity of these threats and their far-reaching consequences,states within both RSCs have united under the umbrella of the SCO to collectively combat these multifaceted menaces.As a result,the formation of the SCO in this region has proven to be a very beneficial decision and a win-win situation for the region.The SCO is a permanent intergovernmental organization founded in June 2001 in Shanghai and includes a significant number of members from South,Central,and X Eurasia Asia.It has nine full members including China,Russia,Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan,Uzbekistan,India,Iran,and Pakistan.Iran is a newly added member state which became a full member in 2022.Founded on Shanghai spirit as a predecessor of Shanghai Five,SCO follows the tenets of non-alignment,non-targeting of any third country,and openness;ideals of mutual trust,joint benefit,equality,mutual consultations,openness for cultural diversity,and a desire for shared success in its internal policies.The SCO’s primary goals are to promote trust and goodwill among its member states;to encourage effective cooperation among them in politics,trade,the economy,research,technology,culture,education,energy,transport,tourism,and environmental protection;to work together to ensure peace,security,and stability in the region;and to move forward toward the establishment of a democratic,fair,and rational new order in the region.SCO is comparatively a young regional organization,but it is evolving as a mature organization,and in a short span of time it has gained popularity at the stage of international affairs and it is now widely acknowledged as one of the world’s most powerful regional institutions representing more than half of the world’s population.From Central Asia to South Asia and the Middle East to the Gulf,SCO has evolved and expanded exponentially under the leadership of Russia and China.Given the volatile nature of Central and South Asia in terms of security and exacerbating transnational terrorism,It provides a successful and distinctive mechanism of regionally coordinated security based on equality and cooperation.The SCO emerged as a distinctive security organization as a result of its distinctive geographies about non-interference and non-targeting of any third party.Without endangering the national sovereignty of its member states,the organization establishes a successful cooperative security framework.Despite possessing diverse historical and political practices,these regulations contributed an integral role in the member states determination to work collaboratively to achieve mutual benefit.The SCO can be regarded as one of the organizations that is very well-balanced and an appropriate illustration of the balance of power.Russia and China,two global powers with a right to veto,balance each other in Central Asia while India and Pakistan,two nuclear powers with active roles in international politics,balance each other in the South Asian Regional Security Complex.However,a couple of Gulf and Middle Eastern states(even the conflicting parties)have lately been accepted as dialogue partners at the Samarkand summit in 2022.The organization’s impartiality and commitment to equity are demonstrated by its decision to approve the United Arab Emirates,Qatar,Saudi Arabia,Bahrain,and Kuwait altogether.One notable achievement of the SCO is its effective facilitation of dialogue and mediation among various conflicting parties and longstanding adversaries(for example: India and Pakistan).Another important achievement of the SCO is successfully incorporating the Afghanistan factor into its fight against terrorism and extremism.Afghanistan is geographically located at the crossroads of South,Central,and East Asia making it an integral part of the security dynamics of the region.Special conferences and committees on Afghanistan have been crucial in developing counter-terrorism strategies and addressing problems related to the rise of extremism.On the other side,the SCO has placed Afghanistan’s development high on its agenda,which will undoubtedly assist in addressing challenges related to extremism.Another fundamental objective of the SCO is to combat three evils namely Terrorism,Extremism,and Separatism from the region which are jeopardizing the security of the whole region and are the biggest threat to both RSCs(Central and South Asia).These shared threats have played an inevitable role in the establishment of the SCO.To combat terrorism more effectively,SCO members collaborate in practically every possible way including intelligence sharing,joint military drills,and signing of various agreements related to counter-terrorism and counter-extremism.The Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure(RATS)is a permanent institution within the framework of the SCO established in 2004 specifically to deal with the issues related to terrorism.RATS operates in compliance with the SCO Charter,the Shanghai Convention on Combating Terrorism,Separatism,and Extremism(also known as the Agreement among SCO member states on the RATS),as well as other relevant documents and decisions adopted by the SCO.As requested by concerned member states,the organization is also entrusted with enabling communication between member states during the preparation and execution of counter-terrorism exercises.This includes planning and carrying out search operations as well as other counterterrorism,counter-separatist,and counter-extremist initiatives.In addition to traditional security threats,SCO is actively working against non-traditional security threats.It has taken considerable measures to counter drug trafficking and cyberterrorism.The SCO aims to enhance the living standards and welfare of its member states while ensuring sustainable development.To achieve this,the organization is actively reinforcing collaboration in various sectors such as trade,industry,transportation,XII energy,finance,investment,agriculture,customs,telecommunications,innovation,and other areas of shared interest.Further,the organization is utilizing soft power in all forms to ensure an environment of harmony and stability in the region.The member states of the SCO are very diverse and the region of Central and South Asia has various longstanding critical issues therefore,the SCO has encountered several obstacles in effectively combating terrorism,notwithstanding its counter-terrorism efforts.Lack of mature mechanisms,lack of resources,political will,consensus on intelligence sharing,lack of mature mechanism,lack of joint military forces,and the structural issue of bilateral problems between countries(such as the India-Pakistan historical rivalry)are some of the major constraints in the effectiveness of its counter-terrorism efforts.This dissertation primarily focuses on the ‘Role of Shanghai Cooperation Organization in Countering Terrorism in the Region of Central and South Asia’.The primary research question for this dissertation however is,what is the Role of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization in Countering Terrorism in the Region? Further,the research tried to answer the following questions such as,what specific strategies and mechanisms has the SCO employed to address terrorism,and how have these strategies contributed to regional stability and security? What are the primary challenges and limitations faced by the SCO in its counter-terrorism efforts,and how has the organization addressed these challenges to enhance its effectiveness?The main argument of the research is that the shifting structure of the global order and the rise of transnational terrorism necessitate the development of new systems and concerted efforts to combat terrorism.In this circumstance,regional platforms play a crucial role in defending against these threats.This dissertation argues that the Shanghai Cooperation Organization(SCO)is one of the most significant regional organizations in the world,with the potential to promote dialogue and cooperation has contributed to a more resilient and secure regional security complex,bolstering the region’s capacity to combat terrorism effectively.Further,the Shanghai Cooperation Organization(SCO)has significantly advanced the fight against terrorism in the region through its collaborative efforts and effective utilization of cooperative mechanisms,intelligence-sharing practices,and joint military exercises.By fostering a comprehensive approach to counter-terrorism,the SCO has enhanced regional security dynamics,leading to improved coordination among member states in addressing common security challenges.SCO and its role in counter-terrorism remaining as the crucial issue in the regions of Central and South Asia,is still strongly demanded to be studied.Even though SCO has been studied by numerous scholars from different fields,it is crucially important for further research in the domain of security.Practically its role in countering terrorism is of much importance to be studied under regional security complex perspective.This research can help its audience to have not only a clear picture of SCO as a regional organization and its general mechanism for regional cooperation but will mainly assist with understanding the SCO’s mechanisms of countering terrorism and extremism.Further,by evaluating SCO’s achievements in combating terrorism,its effectiveness for regional peace can be measured.By providing updated information and an all-inclusive examination,this dissertation will make a substantial contribution to the existing literature.Moreover,the research encompasses practical recommendations and implications tailored to the organization.Consequently,this study can readily serve as a valuable resource for policy recommendations in the realm of counter-terrorism,offering a robust framework for the improved design and implementation of initiatives aimed at countering terrorist activities.The technique used in the dissertation is qualitative,and it is grounded in both interpretive epistemology and a relativist ontology of social reality.This research is exploratory and qualitative.Data for this research have been gathered through a variety of approaches.Due to the limited resources,the primary method of data gathered was secondary sources such as media reporting,Internet publications,books,periodicals,journal articles,and conference proceedings.The content of available and accessible books,pamphlets,press briefings,press releases,reports,letters,articles,periodicals,and newsletters,as well as internet publications,interviews,and statements published in any newspaper,verified source.A small number of emailbased personal consultations with subject-matter specialists have also been conducted to get expert opinions on the subject matter and to find the answers not available in the literature.The research will use Barry Buzan’s theory of the Regional Security Complex as a theoretical frame of reference to create research that is qualitative and relevant under the principles of regionalism.The dissertation will contribute to the explanation of the RSCT as well by providing a comprehensive analysis of the relationship between the SCO,its member states,and their common threat which is Terrorism.For this particular dissertation and under the lens of Barry Buzan’s division of the world,XIV RSCs of Central Asia and South Asia have been taken as the frame of reference.On the other hand,as a contribution to the RSCT,it has been suggested that all the SCO states can be considered as one Regional Security Complex due to the common threats and their spillover effects.It is argued that despite their diverse nature and different geographical locations in their respective regions,most of the member-states are neighbors and have shared threats in the form of three evils: Terrorism,Extremism,and Separatism.These shared threats have integrated these states for a regional consensus in the form of SCO.Under the umbrella of the SCO,member states found an impeccable platform to deal with these three evils.Hence,this region possesses all the essential components to be regarded as a single Regional Security Complex.This particular dissertation consists of eight chapters that are organized in the following manner.Chapter 1 is an introductory chapter that sets the base of the research.It gives an in-depth overview of the background of the subject matter.It further gives a clear vision of the main argument,research questions,research objectives,significance of the research,research methodology,and theoretical framework of the research.This chapter also provides a detailed literature review and provides a synopsis of the gap that is present in existing literature.Chapter 2 covers the research’s theoretical foundation.Through comparative analysis of certain other theories,this study will show why this particular theory(RCST)is a considerable fit for this specific topic.Further,this chapter provides a detailed overview of the Regional Security Complex Theory of Barry Buzan and how this theory helps us explain the SCO and its counter-terrorism efforts.Understanding how regional aspects and involvement help to combat terrorism is facilitated by applying the RSC theory to the SCO’s objectives through RATS.In light of the complexities posed by terrorism in the Central and South Asian Region,it highlights the importance of shared concerns,joint work,and the foundation of territorial security systems.Chapter 3 evaluates the role of regional organizations in counter-terrorism.This chapter covers the development of international and regional organizations,as well as their contributions to the maintenance of global peace and concrete efforts towards counter-terrorism,both before and after the dramatic events of September 11,2001.States have made extensive use of institutions across the spectrum and multiple levels of their counter-terrorism policies to prevent and hinder terrorism.In a similar vein,regional organizations’ fight against terrorism has always been met with resistance.ROs were attacked for their inaction,the weakness of solutions,the length of decision-making processes,and the difficulty of combining national interests with cooperative efforts.Several of these issues also have serious implications for the global war against terrorism and found to be constraints in their efforts to combat terrorism.Chapter 4 offers a comprehensive overview of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization(SCO).It includes a detailed summary of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization,its evolution,structure,permanent bodies,Charter,Goals and objectives,guiding principles,concepts of the SCO’s framework of security,and its importance at regional and global levels.It will also discuss the relation of SCO with other international and regional organizations,especially with the United Nations.It will enlist the achievements of SCO in different sectors including counter-terrorism,trade,socio-economic development,antinarcotics,improving infrastructure,and cultural and soft diplomacy initiatives.Chapter 5 examines in detail the measures and achievements of SCO in countering terrorism.Through concerted efforts and the effective use of collaborative practices such as intelligence-sharing procedures,and joint military exercises,the SCO has considerably improved the fight against terrorism in the region.The SCO has improved regional security dynamics by encouraging a comprehensive strategy to counter terrorism,resulting in increased collaboration among member states in addressing common security concerns.By discussing a few case studies,the achievements of the SCO in its counter-terrorism initiatives have been analyzed.In political terms,the SCO has ratified numerous counter-terrorism-related agreements that laid the foundation of counter-terrorism initiatives under RATS.In practical terms,the Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure(RATS)successfully organizes military drills annually in real-time situations.These military exercises play an indispensable part in the capacity building of the member states.RATS mechanisms towards intelligence sharing,data collection,research,and coordination help member states inefficient counter-terrorism initiatives.Further,SCO’s efforts towards nontraditional security threats such as drug trafficking and cyber-terrorism play a vital role in dealing with the financing of terrorism.SCO’s determination toward the socioeconomic development of the whole region plays an inevitable part in not just revitalizing the growth of its member states in fact,plays a very important role in dealing with the root causes(such as poverty and employment)the terrorism and extremism.Chapter 6 investigates the limitations of the SCO in countering terrorism.It analyzes the several structural and functional problems that the SCO is currently facing,as well as how these problems are limiting the SCO’s efforts to combat terrorism.It argues that although the organization has achieved some advancements in fostering collaboration among its constituents,its efficacy has been hindered by various factors.These factors encompass disparate political agendas,an absence of a shared comprehension of terrorism,inadequate capabilities for exchanging intelligence and cooperating in law enforcement,and the proliferation of violent extremist ideologies beyond the geographical scope of the SCO.The analysis of case studies and empirical evidence reveals the challenges encountered by the SCO in its efforts to counter terrorism.Consequently,it is imperative to assess the organization’s responses to acts of terrorism to identify specific areas that require improvement.Chapter 7 investigates the challenges faced by the organization and their possible solutions.The SCO is comprised of diverse nations with varying degrees of commitment towards counter-terrorism and capabilities.Differences in political systems,resources,and security requirements can potentially thwart coordinated antiterrorism efforts.The SCO’s efforts to combat terrorism call for a multifaceted and multi-pronged approach that may address both the operational perspective of radicalization as well as its ideological roots.The organization may improve its ability to effectively eradicate the growing threat of terrorism in the region by encouraging partnerships in intelligence sharing,joint peace missions,and capacity building among the member states.Chapter 8 provides detailed conclusions and recommendations.By examining the counter-terrorism operations of some of the most prominent regional organizations,this chapter aims to evaluate the trend of security regionalization in the contemporary world.By providing a comparative analysis of counter-terrorism efforts of the CSTO,NATO,and the OSCE with the SCO,lessons to be adopted by the SCO have been deducted.It summarizes the overall findings and implications of the study that have directly answered the research questions and approved the hypothesis.This chapter provides an depth analysis of the findings and concludes the study effectively.In addition to that,a significant number of recommendations have been included for the researchers as well as the policymakers.