| Shiji was finished about 94 B.C.E.by Sima Qian and his father.It is not only an important book of history but also one of China’s greatest literary works.Therefore,it is of great significance to explore the key features of different English translations of Shiji and the effects of various translation approaches.It may shed new light upon the dissemination of ancient Chinese classics across cultures.This thesis presents an embedded case study of two English translations of Shiji,using register analysis(in textual analysis)and paratextual analysis to investigate the images of Xiang Yu reconstructed in the two versions as well as the motivations and social factors behind the translators’ decisions.One version was translated by Burton Watson in the 1960s,and the other by William H.Nienhauser’s team since the late 1980s.The register analysis shows that in Watson’s rendition,the character,depicted as a general whose status roughly equals that of a feudal lord,loses his multiple identities associated with the diverse terms of address in the original.This is caused by Watson’s simplification of the complex address system,which also results in a neutral stance on Xiang Yu instead of the favorable opinion conveyed in the original.In comparison,Nienhauser’s translation preserves the multiple vocatives("Xiang Ji","Xiang Yu",and "King Xiang")with slight changes,presenting Xiang Yu primarily as"King Xiang",accentuating his military exploits by linking the vocative "Xiang Yu"exclusively with the character’s heroic deeds in the Ju-lu battle.Nienhauser’s version communicates an overtly approving attitude towards the character.The paratextual analysis of Watson’s translation shows that the chronological rearrangement of the chapters and the pro-Han position suggested by the headlines in the contents conceal Xiang Yu’s identity as a quasi-emperor king and portray him as a total loser crushed by Liu Bang.It is also found that Watson’s simplification of the address system is due to consideration of intelligibility and the translator’s ignorance of the social meaning of the diverse vocatives for Xiang Yu.The paratextual analysis of Nienhauser’s translation,on the other hand,indicates that Xiang Yu’s image as an emperor-like king is built through the preservation of Shiji’s five-section structure and the emphasis in the introduction on the fact that the "basic annals" is a genre reserved for accounts of emperors and dynasties.Additionally,the disclosure of Sima Qian’s anti-Han position and of his admiration for Xiang Yu in the paratexts also helps portray the character as a commendable figure.The paratextual analysis also contextualizes the translators’ behavior.Watson’s translation was intended for general English readers,aiming to reproduce the literary appeal of Shiji.Watson removed the five-section structure because he regarded the structure as a historiographical characteristic instead of a literary feature.He rearranged the chapters chronologically in order to suit English readers’ expectation of a linear narrative.By the same token,Watson simplified the complex address system and made as few notes as possible to cater to the needs of non-specialist readers.The minimum annotations also result from the limited references available to Watson due to the relative isolation of China from the rest of the world in the 1960s.In comparison,Nienhauser’s rendition is a scholarly work for specialists of Chinese history,which is complementary to Watson’s version by nature.The primary purpose of the translation project is to present Shiji as a Chinese book of history,so any distinct feature of Shiji that differentiates it from its western counterparts would be highlighted in the paratexts.Moreover,the heavily annotated version is also made possible by the teamwork,the abundant academic resources and the guidance from experts in this field. |
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