| In the last generation, we have discovered much about early instruments and how they work that offers new and significant documentation on performing pitch not previously available. Using this information, it is now possible to write a comprehensive study that ties together evidence from many different types of sources: treatises and theoretical works, acoustical studies, musical examples, contracts, etc. The result is a description of over two dozen pitch standards that were current in Italy, France, Germany, England, and Austria at various times from the mid-16th through the mid-19th centuries.;The first Section considers general concepts. It defines the subject, explains why it is important to study, describes the materials available, and critically evaluates previous studies. A new more realistic terminology is proposed for expressing pitch values in a musical context. The connection between pitch and instrument design is pointed out; differences of pitch standard are seen as the product of separate musical functions. The chronological limits of this thesis are explained.;The second Section reconstructs the pitch situation in 16th- and 17th-century Italy by comparing the pitches of surviving instruments with written descriptions. Section 3 locates and discusses four distinct standards that were current in Italy in the 17th and 18th centuries.;The evidence on France in Section 4 indicates an unexpected complexity. A number of new hypotheses are proposed for the Louis XIV period. The separate processes of pitch change in the court, church, and Opera are traced into the early 19th century.;Section 5 proposes a situation in early 17th-century Germany parallel with northern Italy that was valid until the 1680s. The influence of France is examined. Evidence is presented on organs whose original pitch names as well as frequencies are known. The relationship between various German Pitch standards is described, and their frequencies established. The pitch history of several German cities is surveyed.;In Section 6, the implications of music notated in multiple tonalities are considered. Specific 18th-century examples are reviewed. Section 7 applies the conclusions of former Sections to establish dating and performing situations of works by Bach.;Section 8 discovers a transposition grid based on an older English reference standard; the frequencies of various religious and secular pitch standards are identified in this context. An equivalent instrumental pitch is observed in England and France. Pitch rises in the 18th century are described and some explanations are offered.;Section 9 attempts a first systematic examination of pitch in the Classical period. The evidence of pitch practice in Austria prior to the 1760s is reviewed. For the end of the century, a comparison is made between Vienna and most of the rest of Europe.;The appendices contain documented information on the pitches of close to 1200 original instruments. The first appendix discusses which types of instrument are most relevant and the criteria used to assess the reliability of evidence. Since time and place are critical to any conclusions, the instrumental data is organized by country and period. The final appendix displays the data in graphs. |
