Fortress Europe or a Europe of fortresses? The integration of non-European Union immigrants in Western Europe

While it could be said that European Union activities have created an overarching negative climate concerning immigration, levels and modes of integration vary throughout Europe, all the way to the sub-national level, contradicting the presently popular notion of a uniform "Fortress Europe." In fact, the everyday lives of immigrants once they enter a country are determined at the local level, in the communities in which they decide to reside. This study examines the integration process in four European cities attempting to respond to the following question: What are the key variables which explain social and political responses to immigration in Western Europe and, therefore, determine both how and to what extent immigrants are integrated into European society?;The focus on reactions to non-European Union immigration in the literature remains firmly on the supranational and national levels of government. The sub-national level is often seen merely as the place where national government policies are implemented. My hypothesis states that while European and national cultures and institutions are significant variables, they fully explain neither institutional responses to immigration nor the reactions of host citizens. I contend that most citizens are concerned primarily with the impact of immigration on their own communities. Consequently, in order to understand the integration of non-European Union immigrants in European society, one must study it at its local roots.