Gender role, feminist ideology, and intimacy in prison: implications for empowerment and psychological well-being among formerly incarcerated women

Despite the fact that the number of women with incarceration histories has skyrocketed, this population remains largely underserved and understudied. Formerly incarcerated women are survivors of multiple systems of oppression, making this an ideal community in which to examine factors related to adaptation and survival. This study sought to explore potential contributors to psychological health among formerly incarcerated women. Previous research has identified feminist ideology and gender role orientation as key variables in predicting psychological well-being and empowerment. Feminist researchers have called for more extensive research on these constructs among diverse and/or marginalized populations. Additionally, there is a dearth of quantitative research on the link between empowerment and intimate relationships between female inmates. This study used data from 45 formerly incarcerated women in the Bay Area. Gender role orientation was measured using the Personal Attributes Questionnaire. Psychological health variables were assessed utilizing a measure of empowerment (Personal Progress Scale-Revised) and three of Ryff's scales of psychological well-being (Autonomy, Environmental Mastery, and Self-Acceptance). Participants' dynamic experiences within intimate relationships (romantic, sexual, and/or familial) during incarceration were also quantitatively explored. It was hypothesized that there would be significant relationships between gender role orientation and psychological health domains. This hypothesis was partially supported; masculine and androgynous gender roles were associated with higher levels of self-acceptance and autonomy. However, there was no relationship between gender role orientation and environmental mastery or empowerment. It was additionally predicted that levels of satisfaction and perceptions of relational power within romantic/sexual relationships during incarceration would show significant relationships with psychological health variables. This hypothesis was not supported. However, post hoc analyses indicated higher levels of empowerment among those who engaged in any kind of intimate relationship during incarceration. Feminist ideology was qualitatively explored through short written responses. Participants provided key information on their worldviews relating to gender as a construct, perceptions of interpersonal and institutional power and oppression, and directions for improving the lives of (formerly incarcerated) women. This study lays groundwork for future research on social justice and health among formerly incarcerated women through the lens of gender, sexuality, and relationships.