A Research On The Footbinding Female Skeletal Remains Of The Qing Dynasty From Xifengbu Graveyard In Hongtong,Shanxi

Objective:Footbinding was an infamous custom of the Chinese Han population used to modify the size and shape of feet in women,which lasted for around 1,000 years in China before its eradication in the 1940s.Binding started at a very young age and gradually deformed the natural growth of the feet,which was not only a painful process but also a lifetime source of inconvenience and morbidity.Even though the practice was performed on many women,skeletal remains of these individuals were rarely found in archaeological sites.In this study,we report a large number of skeletons with signs of footbinding bones excavated from the Xifengbu cemetery,located in Hongtong County,Shanxi Province,Northern China.Funeral goods and epitaphs indicate that this cemetery belonged to the Qing Dynasty（1644-1911 CE）.Materials:A total of ninety-three female individuals at Xifengbu were found,of which seventy-four had footbinding while nineteen were free of the tradition.Their age at death ranged from thirteen years old to around sixty years old.Interestingly,all of the individuals came from two feudal families over hundreds of years.Methods:Morphological studies,linear measurements,and estimation of body mass were conducted on foot bones and limb bones,including femurs,tibiae,fibulae,humeri,and patellae.In order to evaluate the musculoskeletal system of lower limb bones,CT images were used to calculate five biomechanical parameters,including the total area of section（S_t）,maximum second moments of area(I_max),minimum second moments of area(I_min),polar second moments of area（J）,and the ratio of the maximum to the minimum section moment of area(I_max/I_min).All measurements were extracted from a 50%position of the bones.Meanwhile,bone injuries and osteological arthritis were observed and counted among all female individuals.And the socioeconomic status of the deceased was calculated by using the mortuary analysis method which Lars J（?）rgensen and Rowan Flad came up with.Results:1.All footbinding was identified by type as Talipes Calcaneus.The bound foot had smaller size and taller arch compared to the unbound foot,with varying levels of deformation in individual bones.The degree of deformation increased distally and laterally.2.Compared to the non-footbinding group at Xifengbu,the overall size and robustness of the leg bones of the footbinding group were smaller,indicating a weaker leg musculoskeletal system that affected locomotion and physical activities,as well as an increased risk of falls and injuries.3.The footbinding females had shorter stature and lower body mass than the non-footbinding females in the Xifengbu cemetery.The coefficient of variation（CV）was smaller in the footbinding group than that in the non-footbinding group,and there is no significant difference between two groups.4.Footbinding women had a higher prevalence rate of skeletal trauma and osteoarthritis than women without footbinding,and the disease degree was more serious.The changes of physiological structure and movement patterns,attributing to footbinding,have greatly affected the mobility of footbinding women,resulted with an increased risk of falls and injuries,and further induced a high prevalence of osteoarthritis in the lower limbs and feet.5.There is a remarkable difference in economic status among individuals.All non-footbinding females were found from joint burials,and overall,they had lower total burial value than footbinding females,which may reveal the family structure with a stratigraphy of women in onehousehold—i.e.,non-footbinding women could be wife figures or concubines as well,secondary to wives with footbinding.