Study On The Deconstruction Of Chieftain System And Social Change Of Yunnan Border Area In Modern Times

The study on Yunnan Chieftain System and its relevant problems has long been an emphasis and an important indispensable part of the study of Yunnan local history and ethnic history. Accordingly there are plenty of achievements in previous researches in terms of depth and width, and even formed a research system, theories and methods with specific characteristics. Therefore, to some extent, the study on Chieftain System and other relevant problems has already become an independent discipline, i.e. the science of Chieftain System. However, it is necessary to study the Chieftain System during its declining period because the transition greatly reflects the strenuous political, economic and cultural vibration and the modern revolution in border ethnic region. In terms of study perspective, previous study mainly focused on political interpretation of Chieftain System, little concerned factors such as economy, culture and transportation, which caused the transition of Chieftain System. Even though there are some previous studies related to economy, culture and transportation in border minority area, most of them treated Yunnan as the frontier minority area and mainly studied the inland and Yunnan. In order to make up for the deficiencies of previous research, this paper focused on modern times when Chieftain System became declining. In terms of research perspective, this paper not only studied about the administration of Chieftain System, but paid more emphasis on the interpretation of the transition of Chieftain System in transportation, commodity economy and cultural education, in order to outline the overall transition process of Yunnan Chieftain System more comprehensively and specifically. Besides, it will present a panorama that shows the modern development and changes of political system, transportation and communication, commodity economy, education and culture in Yunnan bordering Chieftain System practiced region. What’s more, the dramatic changes in politics, economy, culture and other aspects that happened in modern times along Yunnan bordering areas and various interwoven conflicts and contradictions in Yunnan bordering ethnic regions will be revealed.The first part of this paper mainly discussed the foundation of Yunnan Chieftain System. Firstly, limited implementation of centralized feudal dynasty’s ruling policies in Yunnan bordering ethnic region and the resulting dual integrated structure of the state administration system are the political foundation of Yunnan Chieftain System. Secondly, chieftain’s large-scale land ownership and the self-sufficient closed economy are the economic foundation of Yunnan Chieftan System. Thirdly, great difference in language and customs as well as the distinctness of Yunnan’s natural geography and ecological environment is the cultural and geographical foundation of Yunnan Chieftain System. Meanwhile, based on the above mentioned foundations, Chieftain System also formed the inherent characters of separation, closure and relative independence.The second part mainly described and analyzed the motivation and process of adjustment of chieftain-oriented policies that the central government had exerted in modern times. Since the middle and later periods of Ming dynasty, the development of Chieftain System had severely obstruct the centralized rule and absolutism of feudal dynasty and the realization of grand unification, the central dynasty began to carry out the policy of "bureaucratization of native officers" in regions implemented Chieftain System. During the reign of Yong Zheng in Qing dynasty, it became the height of the implementation of "bureaucratization of native officers" and the Chieftain System changed from flourishing to decadence. In modern times however, due to the increasingly severity of internal and external crisis, government of late Qing dynasty and of Republic of China adjusted the chieftain-oriented policy to strengthen national defense and safeguard its ruling:changing a thorough way of bureaucratization by abolishing chieftain, which implemented in chieftain practiced regions before modern times into a mild way of "bureaucratization by remaining chieftain", trying to abolish Chieftain System in a mild and subtle way.The third part mainly discussed the detailed implement measures and influence of "bureaucratization by remaining chieftain" (also called "joint administration of chieftain and bureaucrat") proposed by the government of the late Qing dynasty and Republic of China. The implementation of "bureaucratization by remaining chieftain" and the boost of integration of administrative system between inland and Yunan Chieftain System practiced regions during the implementation of this policy in modern times especially during the periods of Republic of China, greatly reinforced the control of central government in Chieftain System practiced region and grassroots area, which also promoted the penetration of national and district administration in Chieftain System practiced region and grassroots area, greatly weakened the political foundation of Chieftain System. However, due to the increasing severity of border area crisis and the turmoil of domestic political situation, central government needs to safeguard its own interest, so it never radically destroys the political foundation of the Chieftain System.The fourth part studied the modern breakage of closure and the gradual disintegration of the economic base in Yunnan Chieftain System practiced region. In modern times, the transportation and communication, commodity economy, immigration and reclamation in Yunnan bordering Chieftain System practiced region have enjoyed a remarkable development. Among that, the wide application of convenient transportation and modern communication has tremendously broken the closure in Yunnan bordering Chieftain System practiced region and effectively promoted communication between Yunnan bordering Chieftain System practiced region and the inland. It also greatly improved the development of commodity economy and inland immigration in Yunnan bordering Chieftain System practiced region, which in turn drastically weakened the self-sufficient closed economy in the bordering Chieftain System practiced region. Therefore, the innate nature of closure in Yunnan bordering Chieftain System practiced region has been gradually broken. Meanwhile, with the development of commodity economy and immigration, feudal landlord economic form and production mode have appeared and spread in Yunnan bordering Chieftain System practiced region. Accordingly, land transaction became more and more popular, which immensely weakened chieftain’s large-scale land ownership, i.e. the economic foundation of Chieftain System. However, at that time, most of the transactions of land were made through pawn, loan and mortgage, so buyers only steadily occupied the land rather than have the land ownership. That is to say, the highest ownership of land still belonged to the chieftain, so the economic base of Chieftain System had not been fundamentally attacked. Hence, the increasingly modern development of transportation, commodity economy, migration and land transaction in Yunnan bordering Chieftain System practiced region didn’t fundamentally disintegrate the economic base of Chieftain System.The fifth part discussed the development and integration of cultural education in Yunnan bordering Chieftain System practiced region. Both the government of late Qing dynasty and the government of Republic of China have actively established schools and pursed Chinesization education in Yunnan bordering Chieftain System practiced region, in order to minimize the cultural difference between Han and minority nationalities and to facilitate central government’s control in Yunnan bordering Chieftain System practiced region. The implementation and development of modern cultural development in Yunnan bordering Chieftain System practiced region, to a certain extent, enlightened minority nationalities’minds, broadened their horizon, strengthened their concepts of nation and country, and weakened the cultural difference between Han and minority nationalities, which is beneficial to break cultural-barrier between Han and minority nationalities and central government’s control in Yunnan bordering Chieftain System practiced region. Nevertheless, both the government of late Qing dynasty and the government of Republic of China insisted the assimilation though of Han chauvinism, so they developed cultural education in Yunnan bordering Chieftain System practiced region with some forcing and compelling measures, which not only obstruct the cultural integration between Han and minority nationalities, but also deteriorate the estrangement between them. Therefore, to some extent, the actual result of cultural education carried out by the central government in Chieftain System practiced region is far from satisfied or even a failure for the cultural difference and estrangement between Han and minority nationalities haven’t been reduced. Thus, the implementation of modern cultural education didn’t eliminate the ideological and cultural foundation of Chieftain System.Modern administrative integration and the development of transportation, economy and cultural education in Yunnan bordering Chieftain System practiced region has greatly weakened but not thoroughly eliminated the foundation of Chieftain System. Besides, due to domestic and foreign political turmoil, central government never and was incapable to implement the policy of "bureaucratization of native officers" comprehensively and fundamentally in Yunnan bordering Chieftain System practiced region. Therefore, Chieftain System in Yunnan bordering ethnic areas has been retained till the end of the Republic of China.