A Research On The Domination Of Ming And Qing Dynasties Over Tusi In Southeast Chongqing District

The Native Chieftain regions in southeast Chongqing(now Youyang County, Shizhu County and Xiushan County of Chongqing), located in Wuling mountainous area, is inhabited by ethnic minoritiessince ancient times. This region is known for its complex topography and high mountains and lofty hills, which as a result presents a closed geographic feature in terms of natural environment. Before the bureaucratization of native officers, it has been difficult for the central dynasty to achieve direct rule of this region. According to historical records, as early as the Song Dynasty, various autonomous prefectures and counties had already being established. However, due to the limitations of historical records, it is difficult to fully reconstruct the actual ruling state by central governments during Song and Yuan Dynasties in this region. Since the Ming Dynasty, we are able to know the actual governing state in this region during Ming and Qing Dynastiesbecause of the increase of historical records.Inthe fourth year of the reign of Ming Emperor Hongwu(1371), Mingsheng surrendered himself to the Ming Dynasty, and thus the Daxia Kingdom established by Ming Yuzhen perished. Since then, the Ming Dynasty established its rule in Sichuan Province. Inthe fifth year(1372) and seventh year(1374) of the reign of Ming Emperor Hongwu, all Native Chieftains submitted themselves to the Ming Dynasty respectively. After a period of adjustment and change, the Ming Dynasty eventually set six Native Chieftains in Youyang,Shizhu, Pingcha, Yimei, Shiye and Diba during the period of Ming Yongle, which continued until the late Ming Dynasty.The official system of Native Chieftain in southeast Chongqing can be classified into two categories: officialsappointed by the imperial court and officialsappointed by Native Chieftains. Officials appointed by the imperial court include both native officials and non-hereditary officials. Thus, the political structure that native officials occupy dominant position and non-hereditary officials assist native officialsand both native officials and non-hereditary officials participate in the governance is formed. In the system where officials are appointed by native officials, it includes not only Tushe(subordinate officials of Native Chieftain), Bashi, Tongba and other original native posts, but also Lieutenant, Garrison and other official positions that are set up by imitating the military organization of the Ming Dynasty, which presented the characteristics of mixture of native people and Han Nationality. In the organization of Native Chieftain, the officials appointed by Native Chieftains are mainly those who share the same surname with the native officials. They are core strength of native officials to rule local people and deal with the imperial court., which shows the sign of family politics. While for other outstanding elites with different surnames inside the Native Chieftain System, native officials will assign them a post in the native governance organization.The Ming Dynasty brought the Native Chieftains in southeast Chongqing into local administrative system and carried out managementthrough correspondinglocal agencies. In Ming Dynasty, agencies that administrate Native Chieftains in southeast Chongqing include Sichuan Chief Secretary, Sichuan Army and Goverment Office, Chongqing Prefecture, Chongqingwei and Kuizhou Prefecture. The Ming Dynasty would adjust the local agenciesaccording to the change of political situation in different times. Since the Native Chieftain region in southeast Chongqing borders parts of Guizhou Province and Hubei and Hunan Provinces together with turmoil taking place in this area for many times, during Jiajing period, the Ming Dynasty administrated Youyang, Pingcha, Yimei and Shiye through Guizhou Chief General, Guizhou Sishi Military Defense and Tongren Garrison, and the Native Chieftain of Shizhu was managed by Jingzhou and Kuizhou Military Defense of Hubei and Hunan Provinces, through which the pattern of Sichuan and Guizhou as well as Sichuan and Hubei and Hunan jointly administrates the Native Chieftains in southeast Chongqing was formed.The collection of taxes, tribute, and requisition of soldiers from Native Chieftains are important ways for the Ming Dynasty to govern Native Chieftains. It is also Native Chieftains’ obligation to the imperial court. The Ming Dynasty established Li-Jia Institution and Yellow Registers System in the Native Chieftain regions in southeast Chongqing which is consistent with the systems in other state and county areas. The native people in Native Chieftain regions in southeast Chongqing who are incorporated into the Li-Jia Institution are mostly Han Chinese immigrants or those immigrants’ descendants. They are forming households that are under the control of the nation and they must pay autumn grain crops to the imperial court annually. In contrast, the native officials need to deal with the procurement of tribute, transportation costs, some of the soldiers’ basic cost of military requisition and the collection of money in Guizhou Provinces during the process of tributary activities. The costs above are collected from various taxation subjects which have to be paid by the vast majority of local people in Native Chieftain regions each year.After the Ming Dynasty established its rule in Native Chieftain regions in southeast Chongqing, all Native Chieftains began to pay tribute to the imperial court, and the tributary activities continued from Ming Hongwu period to Ming Wanli period. The tributary activities in Native Chieftain regions in southeast Chongqing presented the characteristic of intensive first and then sparse in the Ming Dynasty.It is closely related with the governing form and tributary policies adopted by the Ming Dynasty in Native Chieftain regions in southeast Chongqing, as well as frontier situation and the surrounding environment of Native Chieftain regions in southeast Chongqing.In the Ming Dynasty, the soldiers from Native Chieftain regions in southeast Chongqingparticipated in the imperial court’s military requisition repeatedly for their bravery and thus gradually become an important force to deal with local crisis. The process of the imperial court’s requisition can be divided into two steps. First of all, the commander in chief will size up the war situation and report to the imperial court to ask for requisition of soldiers from Native Chieftain regions in southeast Chongqing. Then, with the imperial court’s approval, the emperor will usually send requisition order to the Native Chieftains. In case of a major war or an emergency,the imperial court will grant the commander in chief freedom to directly mobilize the soldiers from Native Chieftain regions in southeast Chongqing. In general, the central government masters the requisition right. Since the soldiers are not included in the Ming Army System, it is impossible to carry out strict military management system. Thus, the Ming Dynasty adopted the policy of rewarding the soldiers from Native Chieftain regions in southeast Chongqing first and punishing them second. The soldiers from Native Chieftain regions in southeast Chongqing who participated in the imperial court’ s requisition are usually led by native officials personally. Among those soldiers, native officials will select some leaders to assist them. These leadersare mainly in the same tribes with the native officials and the elites with different surnames from other major tribes are also included in the leader list. Through Native Chieftains’ participation in the military requisition, on one hand,the unrestin some areas can be pacified with the help of native soldiers so as to maintain its own governance. On the other hand, Native Chieftains can enhance their own strength through the wealth plundered in the war and variousawards from the imperial court.In the relationship between the Ming Dynasty and the Native Chieftains in southeast Chongqing, although the imperial court’s governance in Native Chieftain regions is the most basic aspect of the relationship, the Native Chieftains’ role and behavioralso can not be ignored. Through the case analysis of Ran Xuan, Ma Qiancheng and Qin Liangyu, it can be seen that they all once participated in the requisition of the Ming Dynasty, achieved brilliant military success, and received awards from the imperial court. But on the other hand, theyeither annexed other Native Chieftains, bribed local officials and instigated the Miao people to loot states and counties; or intended to confront against the local government; or hesitated in the war and tried to seek self-preservation. As a result, they shaped a image which is completely different from the image of patriotic and loyal to the throne. When the Native Chieftains deal with the imperial court, their own interests are an important starting point for their political choice. In the conflict between the interests of the state and their own interests, defending their own interests is often their first choice.With the dynastic change from Ming to Qing, the Native Chieftain in southeast Chongqingsubmitted themselves to the Qing Dynasty respectively in the fifteenth year(1658) and sixteenth year(1659) of the reign of Qing Emperor Shunzhi. In terms of the establishment of Native Chieftains, the Qing Dynasty followed the original institution in the area of the Ming Dynasty. With the contradiction between the Native Chieftains and the imperial court gradually growing sharp together with the Qing Dynasty’s strengthening the implementation of the strategy of centralization of authority in the border ethnic areas, the Qing Dynasty respectively carried out bureaucratization of native officers during the reign of Emperor Yongzheng and Emperor Qianlong. The Qing Dynasty’s implementation of bureaucratization of native officers in Youyang, Pingcha, Yimei, Yeshi and Diba is a step by step process. First, it deprivedthe Youyang Native Chieftain’s right of jurisdiction in Pingcha, Yimei and Yeshi. Second, it established Chongqing Prefecture Tongzhi to administrate the affairs in Youyang and other Native Chieftain regions. Third, it dispatched Chongqing Prefecture Tongzhi to be stationed in Qianjiang in order to restrain Native Chieftains in Youyang and other Native Chieftain regions. Then, it set up Qianpeng Zhili Office to control all Native Chieftains. Finally, it carried out bureaucratization of native officers and established Zhili state. As for Shizhu Native Chieftain, under the premise of not getting rid of Native Chieftains, the Qing Dynasty sent non-hereditary officials to be stationed there. They took over Native Chieftains’ power and began to check on household occupant and implement the Bao-Jia system. Thus, it gradually realized Han System’s replacing Native System. When conditions permitted, it eventually carried out bureaucratization of native officers in Shizhu Native Chiedtain region and established Shizhu Office. In a word, the bureaucratization of native officers in the Native Chieftain regions in southeast Chongqing presented steady and gentle characteristics. After all Native Chieftains were eliminated, the Qing Dynasty made proper arrangement for the original Native Chieftain families according to the objective conditions, and thus ensured the smooth implementation of the bureaucratization of native officers. After the establishment of non-hereditary official system, the local government established the Administrative System of District and County through three aspects including the establishment of new taxation system, social security system and official education system. Therefore, the work of bureaucratization of native officers in southeast Chongqing was eventually finished.