Phonological awareness and beyond: Identifying critical characteristics of poor readers who are difficult to remediate

This study investigated the differences in some processing abilities for students with learning disabilities ages 11 to 14 (N=53) who have and who have not responded well to reading intervention. Students had been previously identified as learning disabled using criteria consistent with California and federal criteria, and had demonstrated significant reading weaknesses. On standardized tests three years earlier, their scores had fallen below the first standard deviation. These students participated in special education programs and received small group, direct reading instruction for at least two of the three previous years. At the time of required Triennial Assessments, students were retested in reading and pre- and post-assessment results were compared. For comparisons purposes, students were grouped as easily remediated and difficult to remediate, and compared on measures of processing. Statistical procedures were used to evaluate differences between these groups in (1) phonological (awareness, memory, rapid naming, and auditory conceptualization) and temporal processing (auditory nonspeech processing), and (2) executive functioning (planning, attention, and working memory). I tested the hypotheses that students with learning disabilities who were difficult to remediate would demonstrate processing deficiencies in both phonological-temporal and executive functioning as compared with more readily remediated students with learning disabilities. The results of analyses using MANOVA, effect sizes, and correlation data partially supported the hypotheses. The analyses indicated that significant differences emerged between the groups on measures of phonological awareness, rapid naming, temporal processing, and auditory working memory resulting in medium to large effect sizes. The findings are important as a step toward identifying processing variables that may underlie individual differences in students' response to long term and intensive intervention for reading. Identifying these variables is a step toward identifying students early who may require specialized intervention, and suggest the need to develop and implement intervention which specifically address the underlying processing mechanisms of reading failure.