The depictions of 'Lohans' Journey Across the Water': The complex water-crossing symbolism and popular culture in the Ming dynasty (1368--1644)

Harmonizing the Three Teachings and religious hybridity reached their predominant complexity in Ming China (1368-1644). This dissertation examines the works of Lohans' Journey across the Water in the Ming society to reveal the complex salvationist theme and the water-crossing symbolism in the art works' larger religious culture context.;The introduction describes the complex meaning of du or spiritual deliverance by crossing over the ocean of samsara, the world of rebirth and redeath. Though popular in arts, the theme of du has received only limited and unilateral understanding. This dissertation proposes that the works of Lohans' watery journey provide excellent material to explore the plural religious meaning of the deliverance theme and the water-crossing symbolism.;Chapter One analyzes the design and iconography of the extant Ming works of Lohans' water crossing. Chapter Two identifies the genre that the works of Lohans' water crossing belong to, first by examining an artistic precedent of deliverance genre, and then by culling through records of Lohans' Journey across the Water in the Ming and pre-Ming dynasties. They exhibit different religious perspectives while revolving around a central deliverance theme.;Focusing on the unique role of the Dragon King or water god in the works of this Lohans' tradition, Chapter Three examining the King's relationship in a local Buddhist community and demonstrates the King as go-between, bonding Buddhist, indigenous, and hybrid religious teachings. Moreover, by assessing the King's significance in popular folklores, this chapter considers the King's versatile role, a lord, at times of one or all three realms, underwater, underworld, and otherworld, as another key to the multifaceted and fluid interpretation of the water-crossing theme.;Chapter Four looks into the practice of iconographical borrowing and plural religious meaning and function with this Lohans' tradition in Ming popular culture. Relevant are the imagery of the Unity of Three Teachings, the religious vehicles, the Ocean Mansion, the joint presence of water deities, the ritual expression of Qixi festival, and the inner alchemical landscape. These images reflect the common hopes for longevity, immortality and spiritual salvation.