| The genetic variation and population structure of the Humboldt penguin was assessed using microsatellite and, for the wild populations, mtDNA markers. From the wild, 86 samples from Punta San Juan, Peru, 21 samples from Cachagua, 200 from Algarrobo, and 29 from Punihuil, Chile were genotyped. In addition, 20 samples from Punta San Juan and Algarrobo, and 14 from Punihuil were sequenced. Two hundred samples from the captive population were also genotyped.; Both, the microsatellite and mitochondrial data, revealed gene flow between the four colonies. The mitochondrial data suggested that females were more likely to disperse than males. Due to a dispersal rate of over five individuals per generation, which prevents population divergence, we found very low levels of population structure. However, the microsatellite data showed a statistically significant correlation between the genetic distance and the geographic distance.; The genetic variation, measured by allelic richness, and observed and expected heterozygosity, of the captive population was comparable to the one found in the wild. However, pairwise comparisons of the genetic distance (F ST) between the captive and each wild population revealed, that the captive population was diverging from the wild. |
