| There is a common misconception that assessment of reading disabilities in English as a second-language (ESL) students must be delayed 2 or 3 years until oral language skills have developed. The purpose of this study was to provide a theoretical and empirical basis for a screening measure for the early identification of ESL learners. A battery of measures assessing various domains of reading, memory, cognition and oral language were administered to the participants, which included 339 Grade 1 students (107 English as-a-first language (L1) and 232 ESL) and 253 Grade 3 students (80 L1 and 173 ESL). Confirmatory factor analyses supported the theoretical constructs of Phonology, Oral Language, Verbal Memory and Reading at Grade 1 and Grade 3. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the relationship of these constructs to Grade 1 and Grade 3 reading criteria; the results supported the phonological-core deficit model of reading. Logistic regressions further showed that, at both Grades 1 and 3, a composite Phonology score consistently made a significant, unique contribution to the prediction of at-risk reading status for both language groups. However, there was other evidence that composite Verbal Memory and Nonverbal Reasoning scores had variable influence and should also be considered for inclusion in a screening measure. Sensitivity and specificity data suggest that at Grade 1 it is possible to identify highly at risk (i.e., reading scores below the 10th percentile) L1 and ESL students and moderately at risk (i.e., reading scores below the 25th percentile) ESL students with reasonable accuracy. At Grade 3, at risk L1 and ESL students can be identified with a high degree of accuracy using the composites developed in this study. This study corroborates previous research indicating that oral language has little unique role in the early identification of first or second language students at risk for reading disability at Grade 1 or Grade 3. Finally, this study extends first language research by demonstrating that it is possible to identify ESL students who are at risk for reading failure as early as Grade 1. |
