The evolution of Chinese writing: Evidence from newly excavated texts (490--221 BC)

This study examines the evolution of Chinese writing during the Warring States period by exploring the structural (orthographic) variability of character forms. I argue against the traditional linear model of the evolution of writing in China, according to which characters developed along a single line from the Shang oracle-bone inscriptions to Zhou bronze inscriptions, all the way to the Qin small seal and Han clerical scripts. My contention is that this view is not only an oversimplification but in many cases is incorrect, as it mirrors the ideologically motivated unilateral genealogy of traditional historiography which traced the mandate of Heaven from mythical emperors to the ruling house.; Modern scholars have observed significant graphical variability between character forms in documents excavated during the last few decades. This study shows that the variability of character structure was not always due to spatial or temporal factors but was de facto a part of Warring States writing, with clearly discernible patterns. The concept of an orthographic standard developed gradually only during the Han as part of the government's effort to establish a centralized bureaucracy. Thus the overall significance of Li Si's reform of writing was also a Han creation.