Water, land, and people: The social ecology of conflict over New York City's watershed protection efforts in the Catskill Mountain region, New York

This study analyzes the biosocial context of controversy over New York City's efforts to institute watershed protection measures in the Catskill Mountain region of New York State that supplies 90 percent of New York City's water. This analysis covers the period between 1990, when the conflict began, and 1995, when the study ended. The study examines two questions: (1) why did New York City's watershed protection efforts generate such intense resistance from watershed stakeholders in the Catskill Mountain region and (2) what governed the way the conflict evolved over time. My analysis is based on semi-structured interviews with 143 participants in the conflict, observation of over 100 stakeholder group meetings and interactions, and document analysis. I used a systems perspective, social ecological framework, and social constructionist principles to examine reciprocal relations between ecological infrastructure and social context, including economy, polity, social structure and culture. Problem definition and narrative policy analysis also inform the analysis. The study found the controversy resulted from the intersection of two kinds of social construction---social construction and of the Catskills landscape and social construction of other stakeholders---and evolved as the basis for those constructions changed. The controversy was about broadly defined interests that included maintaining lifestyles, community values, and autonomy. The study also confirmed the importance of social capital in watershed management and highlighted its role within and among stakeholder groups. Social capital unified stakeholder groups around positions in the controversy and promoted cooperation among several stakeholder groups. The study illustrates the importance of historical relationships among resource users and argues for more explicit consideration of the history of biosocial relationships in environmental management. The study concludes by discussing implications for watershed management and presenting a systems framework for examining the connections between watershed stakeholders and the biophysical environment and among stakeholders.