To forge a nation, to forge an identity: Black nationalism in the United States, 1957-1974

This dissertation explores black nationalist politics and ideology in the United States between 1957 and 1974. About "modern black nationalism" I make two claims: First, in contrast to the reigning literature on the subject, I show that there is no "essential" black nationalist tradition. Despite what seems to be a consistent and recurring response to white racism, black nationalism has differed profoundly across time. Second, I show that it is wrong to see black nationalism as separate from the broader American political and intellectual landscape. No matter which historical period one chooses, black nationalism is intimately connected to broader political and intellectual currents in American society. Hence, in the 19th century, black nationalists thought about "nationality" the same way as white nationalists; and they offered identical strategies (colonization). Modern black nationalism conforms to this historical pattern and I rely on Malcolm X, the Nation of Islam, US and many other activists and organizations in order to make this case. Despite the efforts of intellectuals and activists to the contrary, modern black nationalism looked more like theory and politics in the United States than anywhere else. Modern black nationalists did offer certain conceptual innovations; and the rhetoric and activism of the Black Power era did influence politics during the mid-1960s to early 1970s. Nevertheless, modern black nationalism as theory shared ideas about race and assimilation common to its era--ideas, in fact, that misconstrued Afro-American cultural and political identity. Further, leaving aside revolutionary, socialist groups, most of what passed as black nationalism looked like "ethnic politics.".