The advent of metallurgy in prehistoric Southeast Europe

This dissertation is an archaeometallurgical study of the geological, archaeological, and metallurgical evidence of the pre-bronze age basis for metallurgical production in Southeast Europe. The aim of this study is to present the artifactual evidence for production, in the form of minerals, slags, and metal artifacts, whose analyses document the emergence during the fourth and third millennia bc of a local metallurgical technology based on the smelting of a wide variety of locally available metallic ores.;A review of the geological literature confirms the widespread distribution throughout Southeast Europe of sources of key metallic minerals. New evidence is presented regarding an important prerequisite for the development of an alloying technology, the local availability of tin in the form of alluvial deposits of cassiterite.;The initial use of copper carbonate minerals by neolithic societies was followed by the appearance of copper metal artifacts by the end of the fifth millennium bc. An increase in metallurgical activity takes place during the fourth millennium bc, as is best seen from the Vinca culture evidence. All major aspects of production--acquisition of raw materials, processing and manufacturing, and consumption of finished products--as represented by the Vinca culture data are summarized.;Identification and analyses of Vinca and Lengyel culture copper smelting slags document the introduction of crucible smelting of malachite, and production of tin bronzes by the end of the fourth millennium bc. Smelting is corroborated by analyses of minerals and metal artifacts from associated contexts. Archaeological specimens were examined using: XRD, PIXE, SEM-EDAX, and Micro-probe.;The continuity of the crucible smelting technology is traced into the third millennium bc through analyses of slags and artifacts from Baden culture contexts in the middle Danube basin.;Collectively, the data presented here document the evolution of a metallurgical technology based on the crucible smelting of a variety of ores, during the fourth and third millennia bc. This was a period of widespread pyrotechnological experimentation which culminated in the intentional production of tin bronzes. These developments were the technological foundation for the large-scale production of metals of the subsequent bronze age.