Perceptions Of Air Pollution And Its Effects On Health:Examples From China And Pakistan

Air quality is a global issue.Air pollution,both indoors(household)and outdoors(ambient air),is a major environmental health problem affecting everyone in developed and developing countries alike.Anthropogenic sources of outdoor air pollution include burning of fuels,smoke from vehicles,dust from construction sites,fireworks,burning of woods,and release of hazardous chemicals or chemical gases from industries or factories.Anthropogenic sources of indoor air pollution such as cigarette smoking,fuel combustion for heating or cooking are the most significant sources.In addition,building/construction material,furniture,carpeting,air conditioning,computers,printers and cleaning and hygiene products air fresheners,and insecticides can also be significant sources of chemical and biological pollutants indoors.Through questionnaires and mathematical statistics,this study attempts to explore the different air pollution sources and public perceptions of air quality,air pollution and their impact on life and health in different regions(China and Pakistan).Our research objectives are as follows: 1)to study the impact of outdoor air pollution on public health and psychology,2)to study the impact of indoor air pollution,especially second-hand smoke on public health,and 3)to study indoor air pollution by kitchen solid fuels in undeveloped areas on public health.Through multi-level research,the public's perceptions of outdoor and indoor air pollution and the corresponding environmental management policies are discussed.In first survey-based study,a comprehensive questionnaire was distributed to 2100randomly-selected students from the chosen universities and schools in China expanding to 13 major cities including Beijing(Northern China),Baoding(Northern China),Nanjing(Eastern China),Shanghai(Eastern China),Hangzhou(Eastern China),Xi'An(Northwestern China),Lanzhou(Northwestern China),Harbin(Northeastern China),Shenyang(Northeastern China),Chengdu(Southwestern China),Nanning(Southern China),Changsha(Central China),and Wuhan(Central China).Questionnaires that shared identical answers to all questions,and those with a large number of missing answers,were excluded from the analysis.After removing these questionnaires,a total of 2048 questionnaires from 13 major cities across China were analyzed.Results indicated that the recruited respondents have suffered from different,adverse physical effects,such as respiratory infections or problems(lung cancer,asthma),and different types of ENT illnesses,due to haze and air pollution.Almost all of the recruited subjects used face/respiratory masks,some used eyeglasses/goggles to prevent the negative impacts of haze and air pollution,and many ensured that they drank enough water to avoid dehydration and remove toxins.The most severe responses to air pollution were psychologically-associated behavioral problems,indicating a serious threat to mental health,and behavioral vulnerability and variations induced by stress,depression,anxiety,shortened tempers,mood swings,and unpleasant moods regardless of the cities.In the second part of our study,we investigated the self-reported health effects of indoor air pollution on Chinese from four cities(Beijing(Northern China),Nanjing(Eastern China),Shanghai(Eastern China),and Xi'An(Northwestern China))as a result of exposure to household combustion and secondhand smoke.In indoor environments,tobacco smoke and combustion of solid fuels for cooking and heating are observed to be the most significant sources.A detailed questionnaire was designed and administered to households recording their demographics,characteristics,and self-reported health complications.After evacuating questionnaire with the deficiencies,a total of 500 questionnaires were included in the study for analysis.A significant and positive impact of cooking fuels was observed on heartburn problem.Similarly,the respondents reported that exposure to tobacco smoking significantly increased their stress level,dryness or flaking skin,sinus congestion,hearing defects,shortness of breath,irritative cough,back pain,muscles twitching,contact lenses irritation,and blocked nose.In the light of the current study it is recommend that switching entirely to cleaner fuels(such as natural gas,biogas and electricity)from polluting fuels could reduce cases morbidity and mortality.The current study also suggested that initiatives regarding public health safety should be ensured by mass awareness,campaigns,modified and balanced public policy,and institutional practices.The third study was conducted to assess direct and indirect exposure of indoor air pollution specifically in the poorly built kitchens of the rural areas of Pakistan.Using cooking fuel as a proxy for pollution exposure ignores the causal linkage between smoke inhalation and its impact on the respiratory health.Especially,in rural areas numerous households do not consume a single type of cooking fuel,rather they use a mixture of fuels for their cooking requirements.The objective of this study was to perceive the exposure to indoor air pollution by determining the proximate determinants of fuel choice in Sindh Province of Pakistan.The field survey was conducted during the period from September 2018 to January 2019.For defining the sample size when the population is huge,or the number is unidentified the formula determined by was employed.As a final point,it was decided to manage 700 questionnaires to conduct this study.Moreover,cross-sectional household level data was gathered from 700 respondents using multi-stage stratified cluster sampling method.In the first stage districts were selected where various types of cooking fuels were used.In the second stage,from the selected districts(Karachi,Hyderabad,Mirpur Khas,Shaheed Benazirabad and Sukkur),further two sub-districts were selected.In the third stage 10 villages from each sub-district were selected and 7 households from each village were interviewed face to face individually at each site used a standardized questionnaire.Apart from English,the questionnaire was orally translated into Sindhi(Local language)for the convenience of the general public.Results showed that about 70% households were accounted for the consumption of solid fuels for cooking purpose.Likewise,age,education,gender,occupation,family size and income are the significant factors,which were affecting the usage of solid fuel for cooking.However,the averting activities play a significant role in reduction and controlling indoor air pollution.Majority of the households had opening windows in their living areas and kitchens,only one forth households had separate kitchens outdoor.Though,a significant relationship was determined between behavioral and physical health effects for the households using cleaner/solid fuels.It is likely that the burden of disease may increase from households indoor air pollution if measures are not taken mitigate.Furthermore,there was significant regional disparity between households using various fuels for cooking.However,to mitigate these effects,awareness programs to educate rural households about proper ventilation for their kitchens is recommended.Also,alternative energy sources may be provided additionally for preventing the adverse effect of solid fuel combustion.For improving the indoor air pollution in rural households' proper gas stoves should be used in the kitchen and if impossible than improved stoves should be developed and promoted for burning of biomass with least emission of fuel gases.Our studies revealed that people have suffered from adverse physical effects related to respiratory infections due the haze and air pollution in China.On individual base,people are using face/respiratory marks and eyeglasses to reduce the impact of haze and air pollution on their health.Interestingly,our study revealed that people showed more psychologicallyassociated problems,related to mental and behavioral health,because of an increase in air pollution,based on the questionnaire results.Similarly,in rural areas of Pakistan,negative effect of indoor air pollution from cooking fuels on people was observed in a same manner.However,to mitigate these effects,awareness programs to educate rural households about proper ventilation for their kitchens are highly recommended and is of urgent need.In summary,the findings of our studies confirmed significant air quality problems in the three investigated urban and rural environments in China and Pakistan.It was concluded that air pollution,both indoors(household)and outdoors(ambient air)had negative physical and psychological effects on the respondents,which led to severe changes in behavior.Proper management,future planning,and implementing strict environmental laws are suggested before this problem get worse and becomes life-threatening.