| Diplomacy was a key issue in the late Qing Dynasty.Its system evolution,operation characteristics,and spillover effects made it a leading factor and key variable for the transformation of modern Chinese society.In the middle and early Qing dynasty,under the historical background of the transformation of the world structure,Sino-Russian Diplomacy,which formally started in the Kangxi period,absorbed some western diplomatic factors from Russia on the basis of China's traditional diplomatic system and operating characteristics.This diplomatic system characterized by "sub-modernity" was manifested in specialized foreign affairs management agencies,missions in Beijing,treaty systems and so on.At the same time,the Qing government did not have such diplomatic relations with other Western countries,which made the early diplomacy with Russia became the "bridge" for the path of China's traditional diplomacy toward diplomatic modernization.After the First Opium War,Britain forcibly opened the door to China,but it did not have a substantial and significant impact on the Qing government's diplomatic system.During the Xianfeng period,with the continued negotiations between China and Russia in the northwest and northeast and the later negotiation process in Beijing and Tianjin,Russia continuously suppressed the Qing government's concessions relied on the experience accumulated in diplomacy with the Qing government and the changes in the international situation.The Qing government was forced to make corresponding institutional and practical adjustments in the process of negotiating with Russia.The management system and operating mechanism of diplomacy changed from a unique "sub-modern" diplomatic system to a modern diplomatic system with more modern Western diplomatic.The diplomacy with Russia during the Xianfeng period became the key triggering period and initial shaping period of China's diplomatic modernization process,and this evolution promoted the incubation and formation of a new diplomatic system followed the path of "tradition-sub-modern-modern".This research found that there is currently a lack of works on systematic and interdisciplinary research on China's Diplomacy with Russia during the Xianfeng period.This paper mainly draws on existing research results and comprehensively utilizes relevant archives to study the diplomacy with Russia carried out by the Qing government during the Xianfeng period,focusing on its institutional evolution.The introduction part is mainly to define the research object and main concepts,introduce the reason for the topic selection,research value,research method and research summary.The main text include five chapters.The first part is to review the historical background of diplomacy with Russia during the Xianfeng period,and then to sort out the negotiations between China and Russia in the Northwest,Northeast and Beijing-Tianjin negotiations,and analyze the Qing government's gradual weakness in the diplomatic relation with Russia,and the evolution process of institutional factors in diplomatic decision-making and management system and operation.On this basis,the article concludes that the practice of diplomacy with Russia during the Xianfeng period promoted a further transformation of the diplomatic system from“sub-modernity” to modernization.The structure of the international order that China was in had changed from the old difference of the self-centered vassal system to a new global order structure centered on Western powers,which has become a key symbol of the beginning of the collapse of the suzerain system in the Qing Dynasty.Finally,the remaining issues are explained in the remaining discussion.The purpose of this paper is to explore the Evolution of Diplomacy between the Qing government and Russia and its promoting effect to China's diplomacy.So this research can make a contribution to the study of Sino-Russian diplomacy and explore the characteristics of traditional China's crisis response and diplomatic system evolution. |
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