| Historically and nowadays,the disputes over the river’s resources have been the key issue among the riparian residents or states.Therefore,how to manage peacefully the water conflict has been one of the grave concerns challenging the international community.In light of this,it is necessary to explore the complicated scenario behind the water resources disputes among Turkey,Syria,and Iraq which are the three major riparian countries of the Euphrates-Tigris River basin.The water issue emerged on the regional agenda when the three riparian powers,also strong militarily,initiated major development projects in the 1960 s when Turkey and Syria first put forward an ambitious plan to develop the water resources of the Two-river system for its domestic energy and irrigation needs.Soon afterward,Iraq also started its plan of development of water resources.As a result,water dispute has become one of the main factors that likely lead to future conflicts as many discussions on this issue have focused on their potentials in conflict or cooperation.The Middle East is well-noted of its rich oil and gas resources but is also short of water.This reality leads the region to be full of enormous challenges.Since the 1960 s,the region has been generally seen very fragile due to the signs of water disputes involving three militarily strong states—Turkey,Syria,and Iraq—but standing with the different camps of the Cold War.Many countries in the Middle East have indeed appealed to diplomacy to settle water disputes to avoid any potential conflicts in the region.Notwithstanding,the option for managing the water issue by diplomacy has met the challenges that limit its effectiveness owing to the political tensions among the parts involved.This thesis focuses on an analysis of the water disputes by reviewing the challenges which face of the diplomatic settlement over water resource of the two river system.The review begins with exploring the roots of this core issue among the riparian countries—Turkey,Iraq,and Syria,up the period of crises and wars in Syria and Iraq.The issue further runs through the conclusion of the agreements regarding the distribution of shared waters as well as the impact of Turkish water projects on the Turkish-Arabic relations.The study has supported the hypothesis that water resources represent one of the most vital crises affecting the relations between the downstream countries such as Syria and Iraq,and the upstream country like Turkey.Most of the challenges that hindered the peaceful efforts to reach a tripartite protocol were due to the conflicts resulting from the wars in both Syria and Iraq(the U.S.military occupation of Iraq2003 and the Syrian crisis 2011).The political and security dilemmas in both countries diminished their ability to effectively coordinate to obtain an agreement for a fair allocation of water resources with the Turkish government.The study holds that the most important obstacle to water resources between the riparian countries are primarily due to the outstanding political issues,such as the Kurds,the Iskenderun District(Syria and Turkey),Turkish material and moral support for the Syrian opposition forces,especially the Free Syrian Army,which has been fighting against the Syrian government,Also,thousands of Syrian refugees are being camped on the Turkish land.In addition,the emergence of the terrorist groups such as the so-called ISIS state in 2014 and its control of the major dams in each of Syria and Iraq has also been a major hindrance.Yet,Turkey has used it as a pretext to reduce the flow of the two rivers’ waters to its Arab neighbors.It is clear that the war and its consequences have depleted the institutional capabilities in Syria and Iraq and led to the unavailability of joint data and the mechanisms for exchanging information,coupled with growing mistrust towards Turkish intentions.The mistrust is due to the Turkish continual objection to applying the rules of international law especially the UN Convention on International Rivers in 1997,and procrastination in the implementation of all signed agreements,MOUs and protocols with Syria and Iraq.Equally,to further reveal the core issue behind the water disputes,this study goes to explain how Turkish water policy and the projects established on the two-river basin have been supported by the U.S.administration and key actors in the regional and international environment,and the increased water dispute,with the escalation of demands by Turkey to sell water or exchange it with oil.In light of the questions above,this study is structured into five chapters as follows: chapter one covers the introductory part,giving a general idea water diplomacy term,and about the origin of water dispute over the Euphrates-Tigris River Basin among Turkey,Iraq,and Syria,and the importance of the two rivers as a vital and substantial source of food,energy,and drinking water for those three countries;the significance of this study can be seen in the increased interest in the issue of water sharing among the riparian countries to prevent political frictions between the countries,and identifying the challenges that stand in the way of the success of water disputes to resolve the conflict.Due to this,the methodology adopted for the study is an analytical descriptive approach,and historical approach to track the historical escalation of the crisis through the collection of data.Finally,a legal approach is also adopted to identify the laws and international agreements on water disputes;furthermore,this chapter contains a good amount of literature from different authors and scholars who have discussed this topic in details and explained the causes of conflict and cooperation in common international water and available mechanisms for resolving the dispute over water from the perspective of international law and water diplomacy as a new approach to manage water conflict enhance peace among countries.Chapter two continues focusing on water resources as a priority for most of the ME countries,especially Arab countries.Most of the water resources come from outside their political borders(60%).The study shows that the conflict over water resources in the ME region is primarily concerned with the three major international river basins: such as the Nile River basin,Jordan-Yarmouk River basin,and the Euphrates-Tigris.Also,the study analyzes the dimensions of the water crisis in the region in the case of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.This has served as one of the most prominent evidence that Turkey uses as a tool to impose its hegemony in the ME in general,and Iraq and Syria in particular.The geopolitical dimensions have played a vital role in the water crisis in the ME.The crisis arose from the economic and political ambitions of the Turks.Their stance on achieving regional dominance is based on its strategic geographical location.The political dimensions to the water crisis in the Euphrates-Tigris River Basin come from decision-makers’ belief that Turkey’s future depends on developing its political role and interests with the countries of the ME,not with the Western countries that have refused to accept it as a member of the EU.There is also an economic dimension that entered into the water crisis between the three countries when Turkey started to establish its water projects,negatively affecting the water supply from the two rivers flowing through Syria and Iraq.The third chapter explains first,the meaning of water diplomacy and its tools as a modern practice in the achievement of water settlement by using a set of negotiation,scientist,technical,and diplomatic activities targeted co at complex conflict cases of International Rivers,and the study shows how the efforts to resolve the water disputes and then cooperation faced many difficulties in international shared water policies.This was followed by political relations among riparian countries on the basin,as the region has witnessed many political events,which have been remarked by violent and irreparable repercussions which are primarily created by the U.S.occupation of Iraq since 2003,as well as the see-changes that Syria has witnessed in the aftermath of the breakout of war in 2011.This study analyzes the features of the Turkish water policy,which is aimed at controlling,managing,and investing in water resources of the two rivers.Thus,overlooking the negative outcomes of this policy such as deterioration in the water cycle and threatening food security in Syria and Iraq.Turkey has rejected the international nature of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers basin and claimed that both rivers are not International Rivers rather than the cross-border rivers.Also,the Tigris and Euphrates rivers are only two tributaries of one river "Shatt al-Arab" and not two separate rivers.Turkey has opposed the principle of determining the water quotas of the three countries.The study explained how Turkey gave itself the right to exploit the water from the basin through the establishment of huge projects such as the East Anatolia Project(Al GAP)and before it the Kepan dam project regardless of the opposition from Iraq and Syria.The GAP is the largest integrated socio-culturaleconomic project that Turkey is expanding intending to develop and modernize agriculture in the area covered by this project.It began work in early 1981 with an estimated cost of 32 billion dollars,consisting of 22 dams within 13 projects and many small projects to follow subsequently.It is planned to irrigate 1.7 million hectares after the project is completed.Turkey also declared its readiness to embark on The Peace Pipeline Project to sell water to Israel and the Arab Gulf states.As is evident,the long-term goals of water projects in Turkey are economic,political,military,and security that has had an impact on Iraqi-Syrian-Turkish relations,which has been volatile as Turkey has been using water as a tool to threaten at times and flipped to cooperation at other times.The fourth chapter continues to focus on the legal aspects of water conflict among the Euphrates-Tigris River Basin involving the countries as a possible solutionto regional conflicts.This study also traced the path of diplomatic negotiations over water distribution in the basin,splitting it into four different periods of the water policy;either bilateral cooperation or lack of coordination between the riparian countries leading to failure of water diplomacy to solve the conflict,despite the basin being likened to other International Rivers and subject to the rules of international law.The international laws that contained several key treaties and agreements were issued regulating the use of international waters between states are determined.This study further reports many joint agreements which were concluded between Turkey and Arab countries on the Euphrates-Tigris River Basin for fair allocation of water rations,during the mandate period(Iraq by Britain,Syria by France);two treaties in1920 and1923,and after the national independence phase of both countries;Starting with “the treaty of friendship between Iraq and Turkey 1946”,up to MOUs between TurkeySyria in 2009,and Iraq-Turkey in 2014.However,most of these agreements have not entered into an actual implementation phase.As a result,the alternative proposals were made in which this dispute could be resolved after the setbacks of diplomatic efforts such as tenets of good-Neighborliness,the rewards of financial incentives,Islamic law,and cultural doctrine.Chapter five concludes the study,presenting the personal opinions of the research based on the results obtained.A number of recommendations,which could be adopted by both Syria and Iraq to reinforce their attitude and legitimate right of the Euphrates-Tigris River water depending on relevant international norms and law,were also proposed. |
