| Positive and negative outcome expectancies have been found to play a significant role in adolescents' decisions to engage in drug and alcohol use. In light of the parallel risk and protective factors among high-risk behaviors, youth gambling outcome expectancies were explored through the development of the 23-item Gambling Expectancy Questionnaire (GEQ) using a sample of 1,013 students aged 12-18. The final GEQ consists of three positive expectancy scales (i.e., Enjoyment/Arousal, Self-Enhancement, Money) and two negative expectancy scales (i.e., Over-Involvement, Emotional Impact). Significant gender, age and DSM-IV-MR-J gambling group differences were identified on the scales of the GEQ. Stepwise logistic regression among gamblers was performed separately for males and females to predict group membership into either social or problem gambling categories. The results of this study suggest that non-gamblers, social gamblers, at-risk gamblers and PPGs differ in their expectancies of the positive and negative outcomes of gambling behavior. In particular, PPGs highly anticipate both the positive and negative outcomes of gambling. Among males, these perceptions differentiate those who gamble excessively and those who do not. For females, on the other hand, outcome expectancies may have less predictive value. These findings were interpreted in terms of their implications for prevention, treatment and future research. |
