| It is both a traditional topic and a comprehensive research issue in inter-disciplinary and cross-cultural perspective to have image studies placed within literary and cultural fields. This has shown the characteristics of comparative literary studies because it is based on various disciplines in different cultures. Although its inter-disciplinary and bordering nature has not yet been universally recognized, researchers could have good opportunities to further explore its theory and methodology.For decades when arguments and conflicts occurred between China and the United States in the ideology and national interest, people tend to find solutions in political practice while neglecting the more profound investigation and consideration in different traditions and cultures, thus more people have had a superficial knowledge of the issues between the two countries. It is possible, however, to dig out more valuable matter through image studies so that to provide better reference for people to understand the different cultures and social mentality of the two countries. It is not only of practical significance but exhibits important value to extend the exploration in comparative studies of various disciplines.Image studies between China and the United States in different fields have existed for a long time. From 1980s on in China, for example, published books and theses concerning American images have greatly increased. Similar to that of the United States, image study researchers are not merely limited to the discipline of literature. From the book American Kaleidoscope written by Wang Zuomin, a journalist, and published in mid-1980s to America Against America written by,Wang Huning, an expert in international relations, and published in early 1990s; from the book Chinese Views of America (1996) written by Yang Yusheng, a historian, to China Fiews the West in 2000, and The West Views China in 2000 written by Zhou Ning, a cultural critic, and published in 1999, all these exhibit the various disciplines in which researchers have been studying images of the United States. These works were successful because they not merely show that there are many researchers from different fields, but reveal the fact that Chinese study of American images has gradually gone deep down as well. Unfortunately, however, few image studies in both China and the United States are involved in interaction of the two countries.Based on the delineation of the development of image studies in the West and China, this dissertation attempts to explore the process of image formation between China and the United States from 1784 to early 20th century with theories and methodology in image studies in Comparative Literature and other disciplines. It endeavors to deal with the two issues of how the images between China and the United States were produced from the rereading of historical documents and materials, and how the culture of the image makers was revealed in the images formation process and how the impact of more powerful culture and the response of the weaker came to the play.In the first two chapters, the development process of image study in Europe, the United States, and China is surveyed, including arguments and theory formation. Having been the traditional methodology among French comparative literary researchers, image study is well observed for its emphasis on influence and has had the feature of inter-disciplinary and cultural studies. American scholars, on the other hand, seemed to stick to their own fields of research even coming to image study. Ever since 1960s, however, the study on either side of the Atlantic Ocean has become closer to each other with the strengthening of cultural studies and theory expansion. In spite of this, the writer argues that the one-dimensional approach of this study only from the viewpoint of the image maker must give way to the"interactive" exploration between the image maker and the image made.From chapter three to twelve, the dissertation analyzes the originality, development, and changes of Sino-American images within the framework of interactive studies. Documents mainly relied on include diaries, journals, travel writing, geographic introduction, articles from newspapers and magazines, essays on national character, and other more imaginary literature. It attempts to reveal the signs of mutual influence and trace the historical process in mutual image formation of China and the United States. The writer studies early knowledge and image formation of China and America from chapter three to five. He tries to trace back British influence on early American image of China and how Chinese image of America took shape to show that such influence on image formation is not confined in one country, but is reasonably observed within the similar civilization.In chapter six to eight, the writer tries to illustrate the well-intentioned imaginary construction of America among Chinese scholars-officials and diplomat in mid-1800s. He argues that such construction comes from the Utopian pursuit of the imaginary ancient wise king period in traditional China. Further, it reflects both the nation's eagerness to reform the country and the changes of mentality in Chinese under the strong influence of image formation discourse from Americans and other foreigners.The mutual images of China and the United States between late 19th century and the beginning of 20th century are studied from chapter nine to twelve. From the Chinese images in American literary works in the heat of exclusion of Chinese immigrants to writings of America in the same period by Chinese literary figures, from diaries of Chinese diplomats to America to essays written by American missionaries, the dissertation is intended to reveal the "cultural supremacy" among Americans in their image formation and the change process of American images among Chinese during this period.The writer argues that, within the historical period of our study, most of American traders, missionaries, and officials had the similar mentality in their imageconstruction of China, that is China was a cultural "other," the political "despot," the "semi-barbarian" society, and the "backward empire" with little trade enthusiasm and unimaginable military strength. Whereas, Chinese first saw the United States an alien country different either from China or from other European countries, regarding Americans the "respectful and obedient" "New People." Gradually the image of America became a great power with the ruler most admired by Chinese scholar-officials before finally falling into the category of the Western powers that dominated the life of the weak countries. The writer attempts to show in the investigation that strength of a country and its culture and the feature of "impact" and "response" between two countries are usually evident throughout the process of image formation.In the process of writing, the writer tried his utmost to accumulate a large number of materials concerning image studies and formation which involve literature, philosophy, history, sociology, international relations, media studies, religious studies, and cultural studies. He did the exploration of mutual image formation between China and the United States from 1784 to 1908. Based on close reading of documents, material verification, and logic analyses, the dissertation has the following features:1. It has found an approach of interaction to study mutual image formation between two countries based on research achievements of Chinese and Euro-American studies. It tries to provide a way able to be operated so that to show a response of comparative literary research under the impact of cultural studies all over the world.2. It endeavors to reveal that the approach of interaction both in content and in form cannot be neglected in image studies. It tries to show the intrinsic logic of mutual influence in image formation of the two countries, and attempts to arrange the influence as history moves along.3. In methodology, the dissertation is mainly based on case studies except that it has adopted methods of other disciplines. Meanwhile, it tries to analyze images fromhistorical context by reading wide and digging deep so that to restore, if possible, the textual history of image formation. Through comparison and reference of the changes of knowledge, understanding, mentality, and social position of observers and the observed, it explores what the nation and culture needed and what they tried to discard.4. Having proved that the conclusion that most American researchers have established on early American image of China is not reasonable, the dissertation reveals that the mentality of supremacy and "essentialism" is evident in their process of image formation. And, for the first time, it demonstrates that American image of China was strongly influenced by British mentality and prejudice.5. By study of the history of Chinese image of America, it tries to make it conspicuous that change of American images is natural tendency and it also reflects the change of Chinese mentality in the early westernization.6. In detail analyses, the dissertation almost clarifies the edition of Chinese Characteristics by Arthur Smith, and preliminarily reveals the mentality of American missionaries in their effort to construct Chinese characters. Further, it also explores Chinese image formation of American through literary figures in late 19th and the beginning of 20th centuries.In spite of the features, the dissertation has its shortcomings. First of all, owing to the fact that the writer tries to study image formation from two sides and the time span is over 100 years, this makes the collection of and reading materials difficult. Therefore, some materials may not be obtained. Secondly, as it emphasizes case studies and chronological process pursuit, the thesis cannot provide universal theory and still leaves the theoretical exploration to future studies. Finally, image studies being an approach in different disciplines, the research is not enough on how it has received much attention in Comparative Literature what role it could play.Six years the writer has spared in writing this dissertation. Yet he knows that a doctoral dissertation is only a partially fulfillment of the requirements for the degree in human exploration of the world, and that errors cannot be fully avoided. I wouldgreatly appreciate it if professors kindly point out the error and give advice. The writer would be most willing to accept the criticism for future improvement. |
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