Dissemination And Influence Of Western Astronomy In The Late Qing China

Astronomy has unique status and position in ancient China.When the Jesuits introduced Western astronomy into China in late Ming-early Qing times,conflicts between Western and Chinese astronomy has been caused,and Chinese official astronomy was profoundly influenced.After Western astronomy was again introduced into Chin in the late Qing Dynasty,Chinese astronomy has been supplied with new contents.Under such circumstance,a variety of characters was presented in this period that Chinese astronomy not only inherited the astronomical knowledge from previous dissemination,but also influenced the construction of modern astronomy in China.The conflicts between "traditional and modern" and between "Chinese and Western" were still the main themes in the Late Qing period.The role of Protestant missionaries in introducing Western science to China in the nineteenth century is less studied than that of the Jesuits,though literature on the topic is rapidly increasing.This dissertation emphasizes three questions in the new political and social context of late Qing China:how the translation and dissemination activities of Western astronomy were carried out;what factors affected those activities;and how did Chinese astronomy independent from political characters.Based on the previous researches and combined the perspectives of the history of science with those of social and economic history,this dissertation analyzes the dissemination and influence of Western astronomy in the Late Qing Dynasty through communication subject and media---translation books,journals,and schools,and examines the effect of the dissemination of Western astronomy in the late Qing China based on several comet cases.This dissertation divides the dissemination of Western astronomy in the late Qing period into four stages and describes the characteristics of each stage,and appraises its pros and cons on this basis.Firstly,from 1940s to 1950s,as Protestant missionaries used Western astronomical knowledge to bridge the gulf between the foreign religion and traditional Chinese ways of thinking,astronomical contents were blend with Christian terms,geographic,physical or other scientific knowledge in translation books,journalism,or school education.Such astronomical contents were merely fragments of modern astronomy.There were no clear boundaries between different subjects at that time.Secondly,from the late 1950s to 1960s,the dissemination of Western astronomy in China has grown in scale.Astronomical learning has gradually moved away from orthodox Christian teachings.With the assistance of some extremely talented Chinese co-workers,they were able to carry out more systematic translationsin comparison with that in the previous stage.The introduction of Western learning into nineteenth-century China was not simply a foreign and missionary effort.The Qing government and Chinese intellectuals opened school of combined learning in Beijing and Shanghai for studying Western learning.Methods of astronomical calculation were also included.Chinese and foreign scholars initiated the translation of science texts in the translation house of Jiangnan Shipyard.Thirdly,from 1970s to 1980s,the activities of Western astronomical translation reached its climax.Scientific terms and textbooks became unified since protestant missionaries combined with each other.A variety of high-quality astronomical books were translated which added new and original research results of Western astronomy."Current News","Readers' Inquiries" and some other columns were created in newspapers or journals,which not only diversified the astronomical contents,but also increased its influence.The Qing government continued translation works at the same time.They put more emphasis on the practical knowledge of Western astronomy,such as surveying,mapping and sailing.The wide spread of modern astronomy and its challenge to Chinese traditional astronomy resulted in the conflicts between"traditional and modern" and between "Chinese and Western".The sharp exchange of opinions from each side has been presented through journalism.Nevertheless,sincemodern astronomical knowledge was popularized through various kinds of media,the dissenting voices of Western astronomy began to wane.Fourthly,from 1990s to the early 2000s,the efforts of dissemination work in the last stage promoted the transformation of traditional astronomy into modern astronomy.Some private academies began to teach Western astronomy which contributed to the independent and professional position of Chinese astronomy.Astronomy education was able to gradually get rid of its appendage role in classical education or its practical ambition in the previous stage.Elementary education of astronomy received increasing emphasis as Western education system was introduced into school-teaching.Additionally,a number of intellectuals with modern and professional consciousness were trained to promote the modernization of Chinese astronomy.But the connections between celestial phenomena and human affairs continued to function in the crisis atmosphere of the late Qing,which means there was still a certain distance from the modernization of Chinese astronomy.These fourstages were a result of internal and external factors.The direct impetus was the change of political and social environment in the late Qing,which prompted the missionaries,the Chinese intellectuals and the Qing government to adjust their communication strategies in order to fulfill the needs of scientific knowledge under new circumstances.Their efforts were beneficial to the works of translation and dissemination.The contemporary development of technologies and subjects greatly improved the speed of dissemination and the accuracy of the contents as well.Increased contact between Western science and Chinese readers formed an interactive relationship.Translation and dissemination of Western astronomy in the late Qing China was a dynamic process in which Chinese intellectuals changed their attitudes from passive and partially absorbed to active under the guidance of missionaries.Chinese astronomy which was confined in the Court in the past gradually stepped into the secularization progress and became a kind of knowledge which can be achieved from books,journalism or school-teaching freely,with their divine nature dwindling.The inspiration of scientific spirit appears to have been the grave consequences the introduction of Western astronomy had for traditional Chinese which led them to treat astronomical knowledge objectively and rationally.The development of Chinese astronomy in this period came to be seen as the prelude of the institutionalization of astronomy,during which astronomy began to shake off the fetters of the old system,and moving forward in a professional and independent direction.