Study On Social History Of Turpan In Xinjiang In The Late Qing Dynasty

In Tongzhi period, Yaqub invaded and occupied large part of Xinjiang for long ten years which demolished the old government system in local pace. In 1877, the new government system was reconstructed after Xinjiang was taken back by the Qing aramy. As Xinjiang became a province in 1884, not only Grand Coordinator(巡抚)replaced Genemal serving as the leader of military and administration, but olso the same system resemabling the inland of county government officially became the political management mode in the local community, and built government office at all levels, replaced the beg as an indirect management mode, but this brought a new urging problem waiting be addressed, how can the Han Chinese officials from the inland to govern a Muslim society in the frontier with non-Chinese (非汉)culture? This paper took turpan as a case, studied on this interesting problem by using the newly published turpan archives.The study found that in order to effective govern turpan’s Muslim community that quite different from inland, the Qing officials took two sets of measures. Firstly, in order to adjust the mode of gonemment in inland catering to the reality of the quite different local Muslim community, they transformed the old local heads like Jasak(札萨克),Beg(伯克)and Akhoond(阿洪)into the leaders of basic social organization(基层社会组织)like in inland,which were incorporated under the official management of the administration and became an effective support force to the local community. Secondly, official in order to communicate with people more directly, for overcoming the communication barrier with local people who speak turkic language, soon after the Turpan was took back, attached great importance to official Chinese education development. These two policies interacted and supplemented each other,became the foundation of maintenance of the Qing Dynasty rule in xinjiang in common, and also is an important subject to measure governance of Xinjiang in the late Qing Dynasty.Outside the introduction, the paper was divided two parts. The first part "local leaders of Turpan in late Qing period" discussed the Qing Dynasty’s dissolving of begs and the annual muster system, the Qing officials gradually took every local heads except the Junwang(郡王)into the system of county government, in order to make them become the local grassroots leaders to undertake all kinds of public affairs for the authority. Chapter I discussed the Jasak Junwang(札萨克郡王),Xieli taiji(协理台) and sumun(苏目),pointed out the mistake of Xinjiang Tuzhi(《新疆图志》) which recorded Xieli taiji(协理台吉) and tusalaqci in parallel,because Xieli taiji is just the Mongolian word tusalaqci taiji. When Turpan was just recovered and the Junwang had not returned yet, the local government mainly relied on three taijis —Meni,Qabzat and ’Abdu’Alah to solve various important issues, they often worked hardly and independently, played important roles in restoring the social production. They stepped back when the Junwang returned home.When discussed sumun(ie. niru in Manchu,佐领 in Chinese) in western turpan, the article took the case of the fourth-sumun(四苏目) in Toksun(托克逊) for example, they played an important role in the social reconstruction. In fact, sumun is no difference from other local leaders. Chapter Ⅱ researched on the Turpan’s beg, disagreed with that the begs were not existed any longer after establishment of Xinjiang Province. Dorya(达尔瓜) and mirab(米拉布) belonged to the former beg system were still widely present in the local community,and discussed "the head of people"(众民之首)——dorya’s meaning and its distribution and social function. And discussed the mirab beg who manage the water affairs, and briefly analyses its nourish honesty land(养廉地),found out a new small beg --kok bas(柯柯巴什),who was in charge of giving water to every village, but few scholars had ever mentioned this beg before. Chapter Ⅲ discussed the Community Compact(乡约) which was called "as the leader"(以资领袖)by the local people, and pointed that some scholars misunderstand on changing from beg to community compact. Its position mainly come from dissolving begs or setting up new Community Compact. And local Community Compacts were different not only in ethic groups (like Uyghur, Han or Tungan, but also in functions, like the chief Community Compact, vehicle Community Compact and Russia Community Compact). And detailed discussed the leaving office and appointment of the Community Compact and its functions of gathering taxes, maintaining the orders, solving disputes, doing water affairs, repairing roads and birdges and managing marriages. This chapter still discussed the constructions of the neighbourhood administrative system during different periods. Chapter Ⅳ discussed the leader of musilin akhood , its leaving and appointment. Recorded that the government gradually took the akhood’s right of appointment from the dorya and Turpan Junwang, and government strengthened the controls over the local mosques and akhoonds. This chapter still discussed all kinds of commerce heads(商业行头)in the economic fields, and relationship with official,(as actual operators of the taxes and quasi-adimistrative positions in the economic fields, finally became the tax farmer.)The second part "the official education in Turpan in late Qing period" is divided into two chapters, which discussed respectively the charity school education(义学教育)in the Guangxu period and the new school education(学堂教育)from the late Guangxu to the Xuangtong period(宣统年间).Chapter V began with the background of the government’s enhancing relation with the local people, detailed discussed the establishment and revocation of the educational institutions. And discussed its teacher(mostly inland Han people intellectuals whose cultural levels were lower), students(they were from different ethnic groups of Uyghur, Tungan and Han, and with formal students, subsidiary students and additional students, which also lead to different scholarships, but government gave more special incoentives and cares to Uyghur students than Tungan or Han students.) teaching materials(using Chinese Confucianism materials,but in the beginning of learning to read, there would be bilingual materials), contents of exams(Confucianism), form of exams(Eight-legged Essay), funds of the charity schools are entirely from the local administration. This study found out the charity schools had little effects due to the various factors like the huge cultural differences, the improper teachers, teaching materials and teaching methods, the students had nearly no ways out, and so on. Chapter VI discussed the school education, detailed discussed the foundations, subjects, students and teachers of initiation school(蒙养学堂),small school(小学堂),skill scholl(艺徒学堂),industry school(实业学堂),half-day school(半日学堂),Chinese school(汉语学堂)and simple literacy school(简易识字学堂).And the official schools were significantly better than the private schools.Studied on "the obligation constitution of normal Uyghur students ” (缠师范生奖励义务章程)of province government to inspire the Uyghur, discussed compiling textbooks of the local Chronicles with local characteristics ,and pointed out its historical value. The article also analyzed the examinations of the schools from the documented papers. Its subjects like national language(国文),gymnastics(体操),arithmetic(算算),penmanship(习字)and moral character(修身) showed the characteristics of the modern schools. The analysis of the school holidays and transfer system indicated that local government adjust school holidays in order to adapt to the ocal aboriginal life.In recent decade,a number of researchers on Qing history put more emphasis on governing system in frontier which was distinct from inland administration. But in fact, after the turmoil made by Yaqub, Qing reflected on its indirect mode of administration in Xinjiang. This study is the discussion and analysis of new governing system under those circumstances. Hence, this study reveals that local heads was indispensable element in functioning the society despite the fact that provincial system was implemented in Xinjiang in late Qing Dynasty. Moreover,building of new system at grassroots society cannot be separated from the role of local head played in their arrangements. Overall, reconstruction of social system has made great achievement. Beyond local heads serving their functions, government expected to promote Chinese language education to make possible that government and local people can communicate more directly. This also meant to put local people to accept their Chinese identities which in turn did not yield positive result. These lessons and experiences can be focused on.