Research On Gender Differences In Employment Opportunities And Wage Incomes

The gender difference in the labor market is one of the important problems that labor economists still focus on.The causes of gender difference are complex,such as,the deep-rooted historical factors and It also contains the role of government institutional factors such as economic restructuring.In addition,the causes also includes the unreasonable parts which are caused by social concepts,market biases,and etc.In the recent years,with the decreases of quantitative superiority of China's labor,and the changes of the gender ratio,female labors are becoming the main force of the economy development gradually.At the present,discussing the gender differences in the labor market,accurately estimating the degree of gender differences in the labor market,and identifying the causes and structures of gender differences are not only the certain trend of theory development,but also accord with the inevitable requirements of social reality.This dissertation is based on the analytical framework of a labor from his or her employment starting point to the income ending point,and,at the same time,this dissertation also uses the annual macro-statistics and microscopic survey data to significantly study the two genders' differences in employment opportunities and incomes.Firstly,this dissertation analyzes the evolution of gender differences in labor market and its status quo.Next,by using the binary LOGIT model and MINCER wage income model,this dissertation analyzes the influence factors of gender differences in employment opportunities and wage incomes from microcosmic analysis.In the meantime,by considering the important impacts of the heterogeneities of occupations and industries,and the family factors in labor supply decisions and corporate hiring decisions,this dissertation focuses on the influences mechanisms of occupational segregations and housework.Then,this article breaks down the gender differences between employment opportunities and wage incomes from static and dynamic aspects,and analyzes reasonable parts and unreasonable parts of gender differences.Finally,by setting university students as a representative labor group,this article tests its research methods and research logics in gender differences,and analyzes the specific characteristics of gender differences of university students.This dissertation will be divided into eight chapters.The first chapter is the introduction.This chapter,which is based on economic development and labor market realities,analyzes the backgrounds,current characteristics,and urgent problems of gender differences of labor forces,puts forward the significance of systematically studying gender differences,clarifies the research thoughts and research contents,and summarizes the innovative parts of this dissertation.The second chapter is the summary of related theories and literatures.Firstly,this chapter defines the connotations and denotations of all the definitions which are related to gender differences,gender discriminations,gender differences in employment opportunities,occupational gender segregations,and other concepts.In addition,this chapter forms the theory basis for further researches by combing related theories of labor market wage differentials and related theories of occupational segregations.This chapter also summarizes the research angle and main point of the study of gender differences at home and abroad to form the results of two perspectives which are gender differences in employment opportunities and gender differences in wage income.On the basis of a lot of research on the gender differences of labor force.This paper is necessary to analyze and standardize the gender differences from the starting point(employment opportunity)to the ending point(wage income).The third chapter is the changes and current situations of gender differences in labor markets.This chapter can be divided into two parts.The first part combs the changing processes of gender differences in China's labor markets,separates the changing processes into four different periods-the period of change,the transition period,the adjustment period,and the restructuring period,and then summarizes the characteristics of gender differences in different periods.The second part first summarizes the overall status and characteristics of the employment opportunity and income gap,and then according to the industry,occupation and different income groups,respectively analyzes the structural characteristics of employment opportunities and income gap.The fourth chapter is the empirical analysis of the gender differences in employment opportunities.First of all,by using the four years(2005,2008,2010 and 2012)town samples of "China General Social Survey(CGSS)",and the binary LOGIT regression model,this chapter metrically analyzes the influential factors and variation tendencies of the gender differences in employment opportunities.In the meantime,sex and each control variable's interaction terms are added into the research method.The research reveals that the human capital factor,represented by education,has a positive influence on the employment of workers,however,it cannot remit the employment opportunities in gender differences.Importantly,the influence of enterprise ownerships and political appearances on gender employment differences are decreasing year by year.Then,by using 2012's city samples of"China Family Panel Survey(CFPS)",2011's city samples of "China Health and Nutrition Survey(CHNS)",and binary LOGIT regression model,the impacts of industrial and occupational isolations and housework times on gender differences in employments are empirical analyzed.In addition,the metering results show that industrial and occupational segregations have a significant impact on gender employment differences,the housework has a significant negative effect on the employment of female workers,and women in different regions have big differences in the employment decisions because of considering family factors.The fifth chapter is the empirical analysis of gender differences on wage income.First of all,by using the micro-data of "Chinese General Social Survey(CGSS)" in 2005,2008,2010,and 2012,and draw lessons from Mincer income model,the influence factors of wage income in gender differences and the trend of changes have been quantitatively analyzed.In addition,on the basis of previous quantitative analysis,quantile regression analysis has also been used to compare the characteristics of the influence factors at different points.The research has found that gender has a significant impact on wage income which is increasing annually,and,in the meantime,the gender differences in wage income reflects differences in the labor force at different income levels.Then,by using the wage income model,2012's data of "China Family Panel Survey(CFPS)",and the 2011's data of "China Health and Nutrition Survey(CHNS)",this chapter quantitatively analyzes the roles of industrial or occupational segregation and housework time to wage income gap.The results show that industry and occupational segregation are the important causes of gender income gap,and the influence of housework on workers' income is indirect.The six chapter is the analysis of gender differences in employment opportunities and wage income.Gender differences cannot be equated with the gender inequality,and,in the study of gender differences,the rational composition and unreasonable composition of gender differences should be objectively classified.This chapter,which is based on the analysis of degree of gender differences in the labor market and its influence factors,statically and dynamically analyzes the gender differences in employment opportunities and gender differences in wage income.On the data and method,this empirical research uses the general social survey(CGSS)of the People's Republic of China in 2007 and 2011 data,the Chinese residents' health and nutrition survey(CHNS)data in 2006 and 2011 data,and three kinds of decomposition methods which are the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition,decomposition of Cotton and decomposition of Brown.First of all,the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition is used to overall decompose the explainable parts(reasonable)and unexplainable parts(discrimination)of the employment differences and the income differences,and,on this basis,(this chapter)uses cotton decomposition method to refine the male overvalued reverse discriminated parts and female undervalued direct discriminated parts in employment differences and unreasonable parts in income differences.Finally,the reasonable and unreasonable parts between or in different occupations(or industries)can be decomposed by the Brown decomposition method.The decomposition results show that the unexplainable parts of the gender difference are greater than the explainable parts whether in employment opportunity or wage income,and gender discrimination has a strong effect on gender differences.In addition,Men still have an edge in the labor markets.Chapter Seven is the gender differences between employment opportunities and wage incomes of university students.This chapter uses university students as an example group,and in order to test the validity of the gender differences analysis framework in university students' groups,the research methods and research ideas in the previous chapters will be applied into this example group.The empirical results of university students' labor markets verify the gender differences in labor markets,and the differences of individual endowments between male and female university students have certain influences on gender employment differences.However,female university students are still subject to double discrimination in employment and wages,which cause females are at a disadvantage in terms of employment opportunities and wage income.Chapter Eight is the conclusion and policy recommendations.Based on theoretical and empirical research,this dissertation draws seven conclusions in the causes,the influence factors,the evaluations,and other aspects of the gender differences.At the same time,this dissertation puts forward the corresponding countermeasures to solve the realistic problems,summarizes the research insufficiencies,and also puts forward prospects for the future researches.