From international cooperation to international conflict: Statesmen, soldiers, and political coalition for Japan's national security in 1930--1933

Japan's foreign policy direction changed dramatically from international cooperation to international conflict early in the 1930s. In 1930, Japan agreed with the United States and Great Britain on naval arms reduction at the London Naval Conference. A year later, however, after the breakout of the Manchurian Incident, Japan advanced military action into Manchuria, unilaterally acknowledged the state of "Manchukuo" and withdrew itself from the League of Nations. Why did Japan shift its diplomatic course?; Because of the shift in the internal balance of power between soft-liners and hard-liners in politics, in the military and the court, Japan changed its foreign policy direction. Politicians, the military, and the court made a coalition, decided policy principle, and carried out foreign policy. Civilians require cooperation from the military in order to implement security policy effectively. Even if they have a constitutional authority over certain security-related issues, the military's knowledge, information, and professional expertise may give them legitimacy for their policy choice. The military is not a monolithic organization. Some military officers may work closely with civilians while others may try to minimize civilian intervention into military affairs.; Endorsement from the emperor and the court also increase their position in domestic politics. Although the emperor did not have absolute power, the emperor and the court subtly controlled political situations.{09}Thanks to their help, civilians could stand firm against opponents and persuade them to accept their policy. Different foreign policy outcomes in the Hamaguchi, Wakatsuki, and Inukai/Saito cabinets are the results of the different natures of domestic political coalitions during their administrations.