THE FRENCH AMBASSADORS, 1814-1914: THE TRANSITION FROM PATRONAGE TO PROFESSIONALISM (DIPLOMACY, PERSONNEL)

For centuries France has been one of the key players on the world diplomatic scene. For over two hundred years after Cardinal Richelieu founded the modern French diplomatic corps the men who represented France abroad were usually aristocratic amateurs. By the twentieth century, however, most French diplomats were well educated and experienced professionals from the middle classes. The period between 1814 and 1914 was the pivotal period during which a professional diplomatic corps developed.; This study traces this process of professionalization by examining the changing type of man who held the most important diplomatic posts, the embassies in the capitals of the other great powers. The inquiry covers the social and professional backgrounds of the ambassadors, their diplomatic work, and the personnel policies of the foreign ministry. The results of the investigation show that the process of professionalization proceeded in fits and starts rather than as a result of long term planning.; The key components of a professionalized diplomatic corps were the establishment of a hierarchy of ranks, the founding of a specialized training school, and the implementation of a system in which entry into the corps was through competitive examination. Napoleon set up a system of promotion through the ranks in 1800 when he remodeled the bureaucracy. His nephew, Napoleon III, was the first French ruler to give most of the ambassadorships to men who had worked their way up through this system. The (')Ecole libre des sciences politiques, designed to train ambassadors and other high ranking bureaucrats, was founded in 1871, after the loss of the Franco-Prussian War. Finally, in 1880, entry into the diplomatic corps through competitive exam was instituted, ending the centuries-long tradition of appointment through ministerial patronage.; By the beginning of the twentieth century men were already working their way up through this system, and since the 1920's professionals have received most of the ambassadorial posts. Political motives clearly had pride of place in this process, but social and economic considerations also played a role.