| This dissertation describes women's sports in the U.S. between 1950 and 1985, focusing in particular on tennis, basketball, and intercollegiate sports, in order to measure women's opportunities and cultural acceptance. Both a lack of opportunities and disapproval restricted women in the 1950s. Many women worried about the perception that sports were " unfeminine," and to counteract it, utilized a variety of strategies, including "apologetic behavior." At times, women athletes downplayed the importance of competition and athletic careers, strove to present a feminine appearance, emphasized heterosexuality, submitted to male control, sexualized or privatized their games, or chose sports with feminine reputations. Class, race, sexual preference, and choice of sport affected the strategies and their success.;Politicization and activism--beginning with the Cold War, accelerating with the women's liberation movement, and culminating in Title IX--helped bring about greater opportunities. But the emphasis on equality also caused problems. It set in motion opposition from the leaders of men's sports (especially the NCAA). In addition, women in the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW) and the Women's Tennis Association felt forced to choose between saying women were either equal to or different from men, when in fact they wanted to be both. Government assistance and pursuing a separatist strategy proved to have costs as well as benefits.;The movement for opportunities stalled during the 1980s as tennis pros consolidated their gains but adopted a " feminization" strategy; a professional basketball league failed; the Reagan Administration and Supreme Court weakened Title IX; and the AIAW collapsed. Significant reform had resulted, but not radical change, and not equality. Women athletes enjoyed greater opportunities and cultural acceptance in the 1980s than in the 1950s, but there were also continuities, especially in certain forms of apologetic behavior. Women coaches and administrators had limited power. Class, race, sexual preference, and the history and makeup of a sport still appeared to make a difference. The women's sports movement provides lessons for students of social change. |
