The social-historical context of special education and mainstreaming in the United States from independence to 1990

This investigation explored special education and mainstreaming in the social-historical context of U.S. general formal public education and society from the American Revolution to 1990. Its main purpose was to examine the obstacles to and prospects of 'purposeful' mainstreaming in this wider context. First, special education was placed in the context of general education and society. Second, the objectives of general education were viewed historically to examine the influence of evolving societal conditions on special education. Third, the outcomes of PL 94-142 (Education for All Handicapped Children Act) from its passage to the late 1980s were explored in conjunction with the various models and practices of mainstreaming. Fourth, the meaning of the 1980s' 'excellence' reforms were scrutinized. It was found that: (1) the concept of 'society as primarily an economic entity' has had a decisive influence on the objectives of U.S. formal education and special education; (2) special education has functioned mainly as a means of educational amelioration and social control; (3) there have been three major waves of reform in special education arrangements in U.S. history--in the first two waves the element of social control outlasted the element of educational remediation; (4) the latest wave of special education reform, led primarily by the federal government and corporate business and targeting disadvantaged students and their families, has commenced since the 1960s; and (5) the principal mode of reform for the latest wave appears to be 'interagency collaboration' which has inherent elements of educational improvement and social control. Implications of these findings for 'purposeful' mainstreaming are discussed. Based on the suggestion that the obstacles to mainstreaming be situated in the wider social-historical context of the U.S. society, several recommendations are given for strategic planning and more meaningful reform.