AN ANALYSIS OF THE MEANING OF ACADEMIC FREEDOM IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION, 1860-1920

The meaning of academic freedom is clarified when various uses of the term are distinguished. Implicit to all uses is an underlying triadic relation or "concept of academic freedom" where agents within academic institutions are permitted or encouraged to do or not do certain activities without restraints or limiting conditions. The filling in of the variables of the concept of academic freedom for a particular cultural context will produce a "conception of academic freedom." The conception becomes operative through a series of principles and rules that elaborate and bring into being a "theory of academic freedom."; Conceptions and theories of academic freedom will vary according to their cultural contexts. The idea of academic freedom that developed in American higher education from 1860 to 1920 reached its fruition in the report of the Committee on Academic Freedom and Academic Tenure of the newly-informed American Association of University Professors in 1915. The report reflected the changes that had occurred during the period. Sizable American universities, based on German models, had risen to overshadow the small denominational colleges. A progressive theory of knowledge based on evolutionary thinking had replaced the static orthodoxy of the denominational college. New areas of study had developed, especially in the social sciences. Professors had gained a professional identity at the same time that bureaucratic structures in the universities were developing to thwart the exercise of that professionalism. The major threats to academic freedom no longer came from religious sources, but from benefactors, both public and private, who had specific economic and political interests. Since the professors in the social sciences were most likely to conflict with these interests, their academic freedom appeared to be most in danger.; The conception of academic freedom that developed in American higher education from 1860 to 1920 was that professors should be permitted to teach, conduct research and publish the results of that research without interference from university administrators and trustees, or from political, economic and ecclesiastical authorities. Two theories of justification were used to support this conception. Under a special theory, it was argued that universities can best fulfill their function for society of advancing and disseminating knowledge when competent scholars are given the freedom to conduct their work in ways that they deem appropriate. The protection provided by the special theory is limited to university professors when they are operating within the areas of their expertise. The freedom of the professors in the areas outside of their expertise is justified by a general theory. Under this theory professors are to be given the same rights to freedom as other members of society.; The principles that were proposed in this period to give realization to academic freedom in the concrete situation and to develop a theory of academic freedom can be divided into principles of function and principles of protection. The principles of protection set forth the responsibilities and prerogatives of professors. They include the principle of pedagogical restraint, that professors should not take unfair advantage of the immaturity of their students by indoctrinating them, the principle of classroom impartiality, that professors should present all positions on an issue fairly, and the principle of pedagogical privilege, that discussions in the classroom are not for public dissemination. The principles of protection were set forth to protect the professors from illegitimate interference and are of two types. Under the first type, professors aimed to protect professorial freedom by limiting the authority of administrators and trustees and by enlarging their own role. Under the second type, professors sought to gain security of position through the provisions of academic tenure.