Eastern Zhou Bronze Standardized Phenomenon

After more than 1000 years development, bronze casting industry in the Eastern Zhou period became much more experienced. As the socialization, scale and specialization of bronze casting growing, standardized production emerged to guarantee the smooth operation of this industry and fulfill the demand for bronze objects. This standardization of bronze casting industry in the Eastern Zhou period is the focus of this paper.Simplification, unification, seriation and standard are important characteristics of standardized production for standard products. The first part of my research tries to find evidence of simplification by the statistic analysis of archaeological data. I find that similarity and seriation of Eastern Zhou bronze objects might be results of the simplification of bronze casting process. The Shang Dynasty bronze objects are famous for their complex and diverse surface decoration designs. On the contrary, the panchi and pankui coiled serpent designs on Eastern Zhou bronzes, no matter two-sides repeat or square repeat, are all finished by finely made mould. One mould is enough for the decoration of a large surface. This simplification of decoration method is a wise innovation in bronze casting technique. Through the simplification of bronze casting process, skilled worker learned the important points of standardized production, including classification, seriation, continuation, approximation, standardization, definition, unification, coordination, durability and suitability. Outstanding skill is the premise of simplification which is crucial for productivity. Although simplification is an important part of standardization, it can not be aimless and has to accord with certain rules. Besides, a fact that can not be overlooked is that simplification usually comes together with mummification and inertness which may result in the lost of creativity. Unification is the second characteristics of standardization. Unification, usually reflected by the shape, function and technique language of the bronze products, is an indispensable part of the standardization of bronze casting technique. As a result of the harmony of social demands and production, an obvious change occurred on the bronze sets in Eastern Zhou burials - while ritual objects decreased in quantity, their types increased. Separated casting became a typical method. Although mainly applied for the casting of complex objects at the beginning, it finally grew to be the representative technique of a new stage of bronze casting. An obvious result of this new technique is the appearance of a large number of vessels with similar shapes, parts and designs. Based on metallographic microscopy observation and composition analysis on some unpublished bronze vessels from the Eastern Zhou burials at the Fenshuiling分水岭cemetery in the Changzhi长治City, Shanxi山西Province, we believe that all these bronze objects had been made through the same process. Result of composition analysis also demonstrates that there might have a regular formula of alloy percentage in the Eastern Zhou bronze casting. Although not completely corresponding with the record in Zhouli Kaogongji周礼·考工记, the formula is also consisted of three alloys with a standard percentage of lead. The progress of casting techniques has close relationship with the development of technique language which is the carrier of techniques. Without accurate technique language, the teaching, learning and diffusing of techniques and standard will be impossible. Both the analysis on bronze objects and the record in Kaogongji indicate that standard technique language of bronze casting might have appeared in the Eastern Zhou period.Seriation is a high-level expression of standardization and an important cause of unification. The ding鼎tripod set, bo镈 bell set and zhong钟bell set are main Eastern Zhou bronzes objects pertaining to social status differentiation. Bronze objects in a set are similar in shape but different in size - each object is an enlarged or reduced copy of others. An interpretation of the record in Kaogongji and unearthed bronze objects finds that the sizes of different objects in a set sometimes correspond with an arithmetical progression or geometrical progression. Furthermore, statistic analysis even found the evidence of priority number series. Although there are still some unresolved problems, careful research in the future might prove that the knowledge of priority number might have appeared in China 2400 years earlier than in Europe. The knowledge of priority number might have close relationship with temperament.Formal management is also an important characteristic of standardization. Archaeological data, record in ancient text and recently unearthed scripts all indicate that formal management was a significant feature of Eastern Zhou craft industry. Craft production at that time had been strictly organized and managed. The details of the craft production system include perfect management institutions, clear division of labor, firm quality control, necessary supervision, periodical revision of rules and regulations, careful inspection and bonus-penalty policy. As an important part of craft industry, bronze casting in Eastern Zhou might have been also under the same formal management.Some complex causes might have been responsible for the emergence of standardization of Eastern Zhou bronze production. Firstly, it was the result of a long development of bronze casting techniques. Based on previous researches and unearthed bronze objects, I try to generalize the importance of this long developmental process and argue that the appearance of new techniques, such as gold and silver inlaying, gilding, gold leaf covering and cutting, had simplified the casting process of bronze objects. Secondly, I point out that the development of craft industry is always a result of governmental behavior. The cherishment, utilization, discovery, import, guarantee, and education of new techniques managed by the government had provided good opportunities for the development of standardized large scale production of bronzes. Thirdly, I mention that Eastern Zhou elite's emphasis on simple and functional bronze objects might also be a cause of standardization. The influence of standardized bronze production was obvious and extensive. I discuss five important aspects of the influence: the progress of techniques and the establishment of standard; the diversification of societies; the reinstallation of belief; the transformation of art and the pursuit of rationalism and reality. The direct influences include the increasing of products, the development of techniques, the accumulation of wealth, the raise of productivity, the decrease of cost, the diffusion of techniques, the implementing of the "inscribing maker's name on product" (wulegongming物勒工名) rule, and the more stratified social classes. The repeated designs on standardized products even reformed the traditional aesthetic standards. In general, I believe that the appearance of standardized production was a milestone of bronze industry which had made comprehensive influences.In conclusion, my research aims to confirm the existence of standardized production of bronze objects in the Eastern Zhou period, interpret its cause and effect, and discuss its implication for social development. It seems that standardized production might be an important element which had been responsible for the end of the Bronze Age in China. This research is enlightening for a better understanding of the characteristics of early Chinese civilization. Besides, the research also has practical significance - to a certain extent, present craft industry can draw lessons from the Eastern Zhou craft management system.