Analysis Of Eco-compensation Policy Effect And Livestock Production Risks On Herders Grazing Behaviour

Grassland degradation is now a major environmental problem in northern China,with heavy stocking rate implicated as one of the prominent causes.Depending on the severity of degradation,partial or total exclusion of livestock grazing has been applied to achieve restoration.However,the socioecological factors causing the overstocking of grasslands is less studied.Here,the empirical evaluation of the risk-induced factors driving overgrazing on grasslands in northern China was studied.This study broadly focused on the following objectives: 1)the overgrazing behaviour of Inner Mongolia herders across the first phase of the Chinese Grassland Eco-compensation Policy(i.e.,subsidy and reward policy)program(2010–2015);2)the effect of supplementary feed on the stocking rate used across grassland farms in Inner Mongolia;3)the factors affecting the size of rented land and its relation to livestock production and income,and;4)the choice of herders' livelihood strategy with respect to livestock production and marketisation from the standpoint of rural and pastoral development.The study draws on the panel data collected from a two-wave household survey in 2010(n=1000)and 2015(n=900),as well as the face-to-face-interview conducted in 2018(n=450)across the grassland ecosystem types in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region(IMAR).In the empirical analysis,linear mixed–effects model,multivariate linear regression model,stepwise multiple linear regression model,analysis of variance,Pearson's correlation,multinomial logistic regression,and descriptive statistics were applied to address the objectives of the study.For the first objective,the final linear mixed-effects model revealed that the major drivers of stocking rate(SR)prior to the subsidy and reward policy implementation are the area of grassland contracted,living expenses,and the area of grassland rented-out.Subsequent to the policy implementation,the area of grassland contracted and the area of grassland rented-in emerged the principal factors that induce herders to use high SR on grassland,indicating the persistence of overgrazing.This implies that reducing livestock number in order to decline overgrazing across the pastoral areas of IMAR was more difficult than it was perceived at the initial implementation of the subsidy and reward policy.However,the policy eliminated living expenses from the factors that compel herders to use high SR on grassland,pointing at a significant positive impact of the policy on herders' welfare.For objective two,it was found that hay is the most critical supplemental feed used by herders across the grassland ecosystem types in IMAR,while the use of other types of supplementary feed are governed by the local environmental condition.The multiple linear regression models indicated that households with higher SR used higher hay quantity.Stocking rate was negatively affected by grain and pellet quantity in the desert steppe and sandy steppe ecosystems,respectively.Hay cost per sheep unit only differs(p<0.1)in the meadow steppe ecosystem from 2010 to 2015.Contrary to the belief that supplementation drives livestock intensification in this region,the results indicate that supplemental feeds primarily acts as a buffer during the periods of poor grassland growth while herders focus more on the utilization of grassland resources in the good years(i.e.,high precipitation).For objective three,the stepwise multiple linear regression model showed that lower area of grassland contracted,lower household head's age,and a decline in the time invested in other non-grazing activities leads to the rent-in of higher grassland area.In contrast,higher living expenses,loan income,and frequency of snow disaster compel herders to rent-in more grassland area.Households that rented-in ‘high land area' and ‘medium land area' had a lower SR and higher total livestock income than those who rented-in ‘low land areas',suggesting the shortage of forage resources to meet livestock demand for the latter category of households.A higher ratio of the different types of livestock in households herd increases the corresponding parturition rate(i.e.,lambing,kidding,and calving rates),which potentially increases livestock production.For objective four,the multinomial logistic regression indicate that livestock production and marketisation tend to favour herder livelihood strategy,that an increase in the land asset(contracted and rented)and off-take rate(sheep and cattle selling rate)increases the probability of households choosing herder livelihood strategy,and that SR is higher for herder livelihood strategy.The most critical marketrelated risk perceived by households are animal price cum hay and corn price,with higher livestock price acting as a barrier to diversifying into other livelihood strategies(i.e.,petty-herder and non-herder).Based on the outcomes of this research,it is recommended that 1)A series of comprehensive approach should be adopted to achieve sustainable stocking rate and the top-down model of implementing grassland laws in IMAR should be replaced with bottom-up feedback and village level governance to strengthen the adaptive capacity and resilience of the coupled rangeland socio-ecological system;2)a strong feedback mechanism(i.e.,between researchers,policymakers,and herders)that incorporates research outcomes,policy briefs,and sustainable extension programs are required to continuously educate herders on the financial and ecological benefits of sustainable grazing;3)to promote environmental sustainability,policies that underpin the scientific use of supplemental feeds should be considered to enhance better utilization of native pastures based on local ecological conditions;4)policies that could help alleviate households living and production-related risks,provision of long-term loans which are free from recurrent debt cycle,and incentives to lessees for land improvement during the tenancy period are viable strategies needed to promote a well-functioning grassland rental market that will encourage livelihood diversification;5)the government should make livelihood differentiation attractive with incentives such as education and skill acquisition to smoothen diversification or transition,and sustain the diversifying households to foster environmental sustainability;and 6)more research to further understand how livestock production and marketisation shape livelihood strategies in the pastoral areas and to identify and develop the next generation of conservation-driven policies for sustainable rangeland management should be carried out.