| The explicit monitoring theory proposes that pressure causes a performer to pay attention to and attempt to control the automaticity of a well-learned skill (Baumeister, 1984; Beilock & Carr, 2001; Lewis & Linder, 1997). For novice performers, focusing on the process is necessary and beneficial to performance; however, for expert performers, focusing on an automatic process results in choking under pressure (Baumeister, 1984; Beilock & Carr, 2001; Reeves, Acharya, Lidor, & Tenenbaum, in review). Research on attention has only looked at performance on a one-dimensional level (i.e., only looking at speed) and has failed to include all aspects of performance in one comprehensive study. Consequently, the purpose of the present study was threefold: (a) to determine when and where choking under pressure occurs, (b) to conclude whether performing in front of external evaluators or trying to meet a criterion induces greater performance pressure, and (c) to introduce a conceptual scheme of choking under pressure.;Participants consisted of sub-elite and novice soccer players from Leon, Lincoln and Chiles High Schools. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four attentional focus conditions: internal, relevant (i.e., participants focused on their dribbling foot); internal, non-relevant (i.e., participants focused on their thoughts); external, relevant (i.e., participants focused on the soccer ball); and external, non-relevant (i.e., participants focused on crowd noise); while dribbling a soccer ball through a slalom course with their dominant and non-dominant feet, during low pressure, while trying to meet a criterion, and while performing in front of external evaluation. Results combined performance speed and accuracy to produce an overall measure of performance outcome (i.e., speed/accuracy tradeoff). The speed/accuracy tradeoffs exemplified an external attentional focus (i.e., focusing on crowd noise and the ball) to be most beneficial to subelite performance, while a relevant attentional focus (i.e., focusing on their foot and the ball) was most beneficial to novice performance. Furthermore, sub-elite participants were found to perform similarly to expert soccer players (rather than novices) regardless of attentional focus condition or task difficulty. These findings support the explicit monitoring theory of choking under pressure and expand the current literature on attention and performance. |
