Ishans, Dervishes, and a Vast Army of Murids: Towards a Holistic View of Nineteenth-Century Central Asian Sufism

As the birthplace of the Naqshbandiyya, Yasaviyya, and Kubrawiyya, Central Asia has received a significant amount of scholarly attention in the field of Sufi Studies, though the study of the nineteenth century is relatively underdeveloped. While scholars have done much to demonstrate the role of Sufis in the social, cultural, economic, and political life of the region, no attempt has yet been undertaken to provide a comprehensive picture of the daily life and internal workings of nineteenth-century Central Asian Sufi orders. This paper will paint such a picture of these orders, specifically the Naqshbandiyya and the Qalandariyya, detailing their organizations, economic bases, demographics, rituals, dress, connections to shrines, and places in local folklore. In addition, using an innovative methodology, it will delve into the goals of discipleship among our Sufis. Thus, it will demonstrate that there existed great diversity under the Naqshband? rubric in nineteenth-century Central Asia, including shaykhs involved in the performance of ecstatic rituals, the institution of exuberant shrine feasts or co-optation of popular holy places, and the adoption of the trappings of renunciation in terms of appearance. We will also see that the Qalandariyya of our era were similarly diverse, with different dervish strains existing under the same conceptual umbrella. These included the "ascetic virtuosi"---a remnant of earlier times who practiced itineracy, public nudity, and graveyard seclusion---and more mainstream Sufis whose appearance was closer to that of the Naqshbandiyya. The relationship between these orders will be revealed to be a congruence with one another in terms of ritual and appearance, while simultaneously remaining committed to the unique principles of their spiritual lineages. Finally, it will establish that the mur?ds of these orders associated themselves with Sufi shaykhs for many reasons. At a deeper level, however, it will be evident that both types of disciples' (adepts and lay affiliates) end goal was nearness to the divine as manifested through saintly personages, though they used different technologies to achieve their aims.