| Humans' learning mostly depends on direct or vicarious feedback.The former comes from experience learning,while the latter comes from vicarious learning by observing others' experience.Teaching feedback is one of the important forms of feedback,which refers to the information about students' performance or understanding provided by teachers to help students fill the gap between their current learning state and target state.According to its complexity,the information in feedback can be divided into verification and elaboration information: the former refers to the simple judgment of whether the current answer is correct or wrong,while the latter has many types,such as explaining the reasons for the correct or wrong answer,providing examples or repeatedly presenting learning materials,which are collectively defined as elaborated feedback.Most research carried out under the framework of Cognitivism learning theory presented feedback information to learners through instructional program,mainly focusing on how learners process feedback information;it has been consistently found that elaborated feedback is more effective than simple feedback,mainly in promoting deep-level learning,such as reasoning and transfer.However,in real-world learning,feedback is usually a process of interaction and dialogue between teachers and students in specific social situations.It is not limited to one-to-one teacher-student interaction mode,but more common in one-to-many teacher-student interaction.Then,how will the elaborated feedback in the real-world teacher-student interaction affect learning:(1)in one-to-one teacher-student interaction,does/how does the direct elaborated information feedback promote deep-level learning? With the information content unchanged,does/how does the feedback with elaborated presentation format,such as“chunking”,further promote learning? What is the neural basis?(2)In one-to-many teacher-student interaction,does/how does the vicarious elaborated feedback promote deep learning? Does/how does the model-observer similarity affect the learning effect d on vicarious elaborated feedback? What is the neural basis?Continuing to use the previous research paradigm(computer-based instruction or non real-time observation task)and technical method(single person behavior/brain data collection)can not satisfy the comprehensive investigation of the effects of elaborated feedback in real-world teacher-student interaction and its neural basis,because(1)neither computer-based instruction nor non real-time observation task can simulate the interaction scenario,lacking the interpersonal interaction and dynamic information exchange process in teacher-student interaction;(2)Based on the Interactive Brain Hypothesis,the neural processes involved in interpersonal interaction are essentially different from the neural activities associated with the individual behavior;therefore,it is necessary to collect and explore the brain activities of teachers and students who participate in or observe conversational elaborated feedback at the same time.Based on the above shortcomings,under the guidance of the Social cultural learning theory,this study adapted and developed a question-answer-feedback task based on teacher-student interaction.This task has both experimental control and ecological validity.It is suitable for exploring the role of direct and vicarious elaborated feedback in one-to-one or oneto-many teacher-student interaction,and combined with near-infrared multi brain simultaneous scanning technology to investigate the interpersonal neural basis.Study 1 used a one-to-one interactive question-answer-feedback task to investigate the effects of elaborated(information content,Experiment 1;presentation format,Experiment 2 and 3)direct feedback in teacher-student interaction and its interpersonal neural basis.The experiment was carried out over two visits to the laboratory,with the interval of several days.During visit 1,teachers and students were trained and pretested,respectively;During visit 2,10 social psychology concepts were instructed and learned,the flow relevant to one concept,that is one trial,could be split into teacher's question,student's answer and teacher's feedback,with a total of 10 trials;After that,the students were tested for knowledge,including recognition and transfer.In Experiment 1,the teacher provided simple feedback(correct answer)and elaborated feedback(correct answer + example)to the two groups of students,respectively;According to previous studies,feedback information processing activated the learners' and teachers' frontal and parietal regions.Therefore,the above regions were regarded as regions of interest,and near-infrared light poles were placed to simultaneously record the teachers' and students' brain activities during the task,and data during the feedback period were selected according to the experimental video.Therefore,Experiment 1 used a univariate(feedback information: elaborated vs.simple)between-group design.In Experiment 2,the teacher provided two groups of students with chunking(two relative concepts)or separate(the same as Experiment 1)elaborated feedback(correct answer+ example),hereinafter referred to as chunking feedback and separate feedback;In addition,the level of students' knowledge before receiving feedback was manipulated by setting whether there was a learning introduction phase;adding a second knowledge post-test after 7 days to investigate the long-term effect of learning.Therefore,experiment 2 adopted 2(feedback presentation: chunking vs.separate)× 2(prior knowledge: high vs.low)between-group design.Based on the behavioral results of Experiment 2,in Experiment 3,the students' prior knowledge before receiving feedback was manipulated to be low;during the task,teachers' and students' brain activities were simultaneously collected;in order to eliminate the interference of feedback delay caused by the chunking presentation,a false chunking feedback condition was added(the feedback timing is the same as that of chunking feedback,but for two unrelated concepts);Other settings are the same as experiment 2.Therefore,Experiment 3 used a univariate(feedback presentation: chunking vs.false chunking vs.separate)between-group design.The behavioral results showed that compared with the simple feedback group,the students in the elaborated feedback group had higher accuracy in transfer measurement(Experiment 1);the interaction between feedback presentation and prior knowledge was significant(Experiment 2);simple effect analysis revealed that under the condition of low prior knowledge,compared with the separate feedback group,the students in the chunking feedback group had higher accuracy in the transfer measurement after 7 days(Experiment 2);Under the condition of low prior knowledge,compared with the nonchunking(false chunking,separate)feedback group,the students in the chunking feedback group had higher accuracy in the transfer measurement after 7 days.There was no difference between the false chunking group and the separate feedback group(Experiment 3),which excluded the feedback delay interpretation of the results of Experiment 2.Mediation analysis found that under the condition of low prior knowledge,there was an indirect path from the presentation formats of elaborated feedback to the number of relevant concept-pair error correction,which affected the accuracy of transfer(Experiments 2 and 3),suggesting that chunking error correction may be one of the cognitive processes of elaborated presentation of feedback to promote transfer.The above results suggest that elaboration of direct feedback in teacher-student interaction,including information content and presentation formats,can bring deep learning gains,such as transfer,and possibly cognitive processes that are more effective error correction.Brain-brain results showed that compared with resting(no interaction),teacher students had significantly greater brain synchronization in frontal and parietal regions during elaborated feedback;Further,the elaborated feedback was divided into two parts:the correct answer and the example,which were compared with resting,respectively.It was found that the brain synchronization of the example part was significantly greater than that of resting and the correct answer part,suggesting that the brain synchronization may be specific to the elaborated information in the feedback;Based on the support vector machine regression algorithm,the brain synchronization between teachers and students in the parietal lobe region predicted the transfer performance of students,and the above prediction relationship was still valid when brain synchronization was teacher-leading or lagging(Experiment 1),suggesting that the brain synchronization in the parietal lobe may be the neural basis of elaborated information in feedback to deepen learning.Compared with non chunking(false chunking and separate)feedback,the brain synchronization of teacher student in frontal and parietal regions was greater in the process of chunking feedback;During the chunking feedback,the teacher student brain synchronization in the frontal region was positively correlated with the accuracy of transfer measurement and the number of relevant concept-pair error correction immediately after learning and 7 days after learning(Experiment 3),suggesting that the brain synchronization in the frontal lobe may be the neural basis for the elaborated presentation of feedback,promoting error correction and deepening learning.Considering that people are social,it is possible to learn not only from direct experience,but also to achieve vicarious learning based on the vicarious feedback by observing the experience of others(i.e.,models)without directly receiving feedback.Study 2(Experiment 4,Experiment 5a and Experiment 5b)added a new student subject on the basis of study 1 to form a teacher-student-student one-to-many interaction situation,simulated the simultaneous presence of teacher,model and observer in realtime observation learning,and mainly investigated the effects of vicarious elaborated feedback in one-to-many teacher-student interaction and its interpersonal neural basis.In Experiment 4,according to the difference of pre-test accuracy,the two students were divided into groups to manipulate whether the prior knowledge before receiving feedback was similar,and whether to directly conduct question and answer feedback with the teacher to manipulate the access to elaborated feedback;In Experiment 4,the roles of model and observer were fixed,that is,two students were designated to participate in or observe all question and answer feedback.Therefore,Experiment 4adopted 2(feedback access: direct vs.vicarious)× 2(knowledge similarity: high vs.low)mixed experimental design,the first is a within-group variable.Based on the behavioral results of Experiment 4,in Experiment 5a,the manipulative model-observer knowledge similarity before receiving feedback was high;During the task,teachers' and students' brain activities were simultaneously collected;The second post-test of knowledge was added after 7 days;Other settings are the same as experiment 4.Therefore,Experiment 5a adopted a univariate(feedback access: direct vs.vicarious)within-group design.Considering that there are both model and observer in real-time observation learning,and the imbalance caused by fixed roles may have a negative impact on their learning,the exchanged role of model and observer was used in Experiment 5b,that is,two students participated in and observed half of the questionanswer-feedback,and other settings are the same as experiment 5a.The behavioral results showed that the feedback access and knowledge similarity effect were not significant in the accuracy of post-learning recognition and transfer measurement(Experiment 4),indicating that vicarious elaborated feedback can also promote learning;In the accuracy of post-learning transfer measurement,the interaction between feedback access and knowledge similarity was significant;Simple effect analysis found that under the condition of vicarious feedback,compared with the low knowledge similarity group,the observers in the high knowledge similarity group had a higher accuracy in the transfer measurement after learning(Experiment 4),indicating that the model observer similarity modulates the observation learning based on vicarious elaborated feedback.In the case of high similarity of knowledge,the effect of feedback access was not significant in the accuracy of recognition and transfer measurement immediately and 7 days after learning(Experiments 5a and 5b),suggesting that vicarious elaborated feedback can also promote learning and long-term keep.Compared with observers who received vicarious feedback,the model that received direct feedback reported a greater task burden,there was a process effect in learning,and students' test accuracy declined in the second half of the learning(Experiment 5a).The above results were not found in Experiment 5b,implying that both model and observer co-exist in real-time observational learning with fixed roles may not be conducive to the optimal effect of direct and vicarious elaborated feedback.Brain-brain results showed that compared with resting,in the process of direct/vicarious feedback,the model/observer and teacher had significantly greater brain-brain synchronization in frontal and parietal regions,and there was no effect of feedback access(Experiments 5a and 5b),suggesting that vicarious feedback and direct feedback may have the same neural basis;Compared with resting,the observer and model showed significantly greater brain-brain synchronization in the frontal lobe region(Experiment 5a);Compared with resting,the observer and model showed greater brainbrain synchronization in the parietal lobe region(Experiment 5b).In the process of vicarious feedback,the brain-brain synchronization between the observer and the teacher on the parietal lobe was positively correlated with the accuracy of the transfer measurement immediately and 7 days after the observer's learning,and the brain-brain synchronization between the observer and the model on the parietal lobe was positively correlated with their mean transfer performance after 7 days(Experiment 5b),suggesting that the brain-brain synchronization on the parietal lobe may also be the neural basis of vicarious forms of elaborated feedback to deepen learning.Furthermore,the difference in brain-brain synchronization in the parietal lobe(observer?teachermodel?teacher)was positively correlated with the difference in transfer accuracy increase(observer-model)after 7 days of learning,and also with the difference in the number of error corrections(observer-model)on transfer measures 7 days after learning;the observer-model brain synchronization in the parietal lobe was negatively correlated with the absolute value of the difference in their accuracy on the transfer measure immediately after learning(Experiment 5b),the above results suggest that the brain synchronously reflects the learning/cognition alignment.In summary,this study revealed that direct and vicarious elaborated feedback in the interaction between teachers and students was to deepen learning and increase transfer,and the effect was long-term;the possible interpersonal neural basis was brainbrain synchronization in frontal and parietal regions between teachers and students,which predicted learning performance,indicated error corrections and suggested cognitive alignment.This study provides a feasible experimental paradigm and technical methods for carrying out educational psychology research in interactive situations under the guidance of the Social cultural learning theory.At the theoretical level,this study expands Cognitivism learning theory,and reveals the long-term benefit of elaborated information content and information presentation formats on deep-level learning such as transfer in the real-life teacher-student interaction;enriches the Interactive Brain Hypothesis,for the first time,it is revealed that the interpersonal neural basis of experience learning and real-time observational learning based on vicarious feedback may be brain-brain synchronization in the frontal and parietal regions,suggesting that direct and vicarious forms of elaborated feedback may have the same interpersonal neural basis.In educational practice,this research can provide instructive suggestions and inspirations for the effective design of feedback in real classrooms. |
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