| In chapter one,I introduce my research: including the background,research question,methodology,and literature review.The aim of my research is to explore why Japan has banned foreign unskilled labour,opting instead to mechanize and rationalize production processes,as well as make use of domestic sources of labour,even though the economy continues to suffer setbacks due to persistent shortage of such domestic unskilled workers.The Japanese government has cited concerns over the erosion of native wages as a reason why they continue to uphold the ban.My aim is not only to test this assertion by using labour-economics theory,but to also demonstrate that there are further non-economic factors that inform the closed stance adopted by the Japanese government towards unskilled foreigners.I approach both objectives by making use of a theory developed by labour economist Anna Maria Mayda in her paper “Who is against Immigration? A Cross-Country Investigation of Individual Attitudes toward Immigrants”.In her investigation,she theorizes both economic and non-economic determinants of immigration attitudes,which can effectively be used to explain varying attitudes towards immigrants at the national level.In my second chapter I outline Japan's historical attitudes and practises with immigration.Japan has been one of few advanced industrial countries in the world that did not make use of large numbers of unskilled foreign labour,the likely result of the country's insistence on ethnic homogeneity,which gave rise to negative attitudes towards opening up to unskilled foreign workers.Historically,Japan,however,was in fact at one point a sending country where immigrants are concerned,as well as a receiving country.In other words,Japanese nationals have,too,at one point left their borders in search of labour opportunities abroad(likely unskilled labour)owing to a constrained domestic labour market.Furthermore,Foreign unskilled workers were introduced into Japan's labour force during the period of war to ensure the continued running of the Japanese economy,following the mobilization of Japanese men to the battle field.Evidently,when faced with a shortage of unskilled workers during the war,Japan did not hesitate to open its doors to unskilled foreign workers – demonstrating the government's recognition of their economic importance and vitality.Interestingly enough,when faced with a similar shortage today – albeit without war – the Japanese government has adopted a more restrictive response.In the 1980 s,after two economic booms,Japan faced mounting pressures of global migration resulting from an undersupply of domestic unskilled labour to meet the needs of the developing domestic economy.Following the mass arrival of new immigrants from different sending countries,who made their way to Japan in pursuit of employment opportunities,the Japanese government found it increasingly difficult to remain open.Despite the crippling labour shortage,the Japanese government refused to officially open its doors to unskilled migrant workers,instead they revised the Immigration Control and Refugee Recognition Act in 1990 – effectively banning foreign unskilled workers from taking employment in Japan,as well as imposing tough penalties on employers and agents found to be facilitating the employment of unskilled foreigners.I find that the overall historical practices of Japan have shown that Japan has had a peculiar experience with immigration – both with its people,as well as those from other nations.At times,Japan has been welcoming to foreign unskilled labour,particularly when faced with mounting economic pressures(war and economic booms),and has also expected foreign nations to be welcoming of Japan's own people(during times of saturated labour market conditions).When taking this into consideration,it becomes less clear as to why attitudes have changed so drastically during present times.The next step I take is to explore and explain the current ban on unskilled labour(despite evident economic needs)through the use of a theoretical framework.In chapter three,I explore the theories available to explain the case of Japan.I find that the most relevant theory,in immigration policy preference,to the case of Japan is that developed by Anna Maria Mayda.Her theoretical framework was first published in August 2006 in The Review of Economics and Statistics.Vol.88,No.3,under the title: “Who is against Immigration? A Cross-Country Investigation of Individual Attitudes toward Immigrants”.Mayda's paper is premised on separating determinants of attitudes towards immigrants into two categories: economic and noneconomic determinants.Concerning economic determinants,Mayda highlights the labour market as the main determining factor of native attitudes towards immigration,particularly the impact of immigrants on the factor market returns(labour wages)of natives.Secondly,she outlines the perceived fiscal impact of immigration on welfare as another important economic determinant..Mayda's research paper further explores non-economic determinants of attitudes towards immigration,with a particular focus on security worries,as well as cultural and national identity issues.Security concerns are related to the belief that immigrants – rather than natives – are more likely to be involved in criminal activities.Cultural and national identity issues,on the other hand,relate to the often intrinsic side effects of immigration: the mixing of people from different cultures,origins,and ethinc groups – which often becomes a clash.In Chapter four,I apply the selected theory to the specific case of Japan.When Mayda's theory is applied to this case,I find that the same conclusion does in fact hold true,in that there does appear to be a wage effect on native wages caused by an increase in foreign unskilled workers.This,I term,to be the economic effect of unskilled workers in Japan.Furthermore,Japan continues to hold negative sentiments towards immigrants,with such sentiments being centred on issues relating to security and culture.Firstly,it is not surprising to see such a strong sense of Nationalism in Japan – given that the country is still a widely culturally homogenous society.Such a homogenous environment is bound to lead to the maintenance and primacy of local norms,traditions,and belief systems,as well ideas on what constitutes a Japanese national.The most notable of such characteristic is the right of blood principle in the determination of one's nationality,which requires one or both parents of a prospective citizen to be Japanese,as opposed to the right of soil principal(right of birth)which just requires one to be born in the country.One of my more notable findings is that relating to the presence of immigrants in Japan and their perceived effect on criminal activities in Japan,which is enhanced by the role of Japanese media.A large number of Japanese nationals believe that immigrants,rather than nationals,are more likely to be involved in criminal activities.In my conclusion,I find that first of all there is a connection between increased foreign unskilled workers and the erosion of similarly skilled native Japanese workers.Secondly,I find that Japanese attitudes towards immigrants are informed by feelings of nationalism,as well as concerns over safety and cultural erosion,and reporting by the media on foreigners.Although these findings explain the current attitudes in Japan regarding immigration,such attitudes are not conducive to the economic future of Japan.I conclude with some recommendations as to how a more conducive policy may be adopted. |
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