Toward The Ocean Era

By studying the marine social economic tradition in Shandong's history, this dissertation probes into the inner motivation of the modernization in the early phase of Shandong's coastal areas. The whole dissertation is divided into six chapters, with 180,000 words in total.Chinese and overseas experts have done various theoretical probations concerning China's modernization in the early phase, which can be roughly divided into two interpretational models: "internal-cause theories", and "external-cause theories". For the former, there are "compact-response model", "imperialism theory", "external-growth theory", etc.; and for the latter, there are "germination-of-capitalism model", "China-centered approach", etc. I believe that the "modernity" in world history in fact means marine times. Therefore, China's modernization in the early phase can be called the historical process of turning to marine times. The method of studying China's modernization in the early phase from the perspective of the history of marine development not only can break through the limitations of existing theories, but also can be helpful in overcoming the tradition-modernity dualism.Shandong is a major marine province in China, closely tied with the ocean from ancient times. The continuous development of socio-economy in Shandong's coastal areas is characteristic of the marine tradition. This is because the special geographical environment and locality enable the inhabitants in Shandong's coastal areas to live on the ocean, and to maintain a close relationship with the marine world, which provide the socio-ecological basis and the historical evidence for the turning to the marine times in Shandong's coastal areas.The marine ban and the marine defense from the Ming Dynasty to the early years of the Qing Dynasty once made China secede from the ocean, but the nongovernmental marine tradition had never been blocked. During the reign of Emperor Kangxi in the Qing Dynasty, the governmental marine causes and nongovernmental marine trade both developed quickly. From the reign of Emperor Qianlong to that of Emperor Daoguang, the increasing south-north trade makes it possible for several port cities to emerge in Shandong's coastal areas. Qingdao and Yantai specifically, due to their privileged positions, became treaty ports ruled by western colonizers in the later period of the 19th century. In order to gain more commercial benefits and develop the local economy, Shandong's authorities established Jinan, Weixian, Zhoucun, and Longkou as commercial ports. This shows that, the inner motivation of turning to the marine times had long lied in the traditional socio-economic structure in Shandong's coastal areas.The opening of the Grand Canal and the river transportation facilitated some commercial cities on the Canal, which became Shandong's socio-economic center. From the reign of Emperor Jiaqing to that of Emperor Daoguang, the Grand Canal declined due to the flood peril of the Yellow River and the riverbed silting. Meanwhile, Shandong's coastal ports like Nvgukou, Tafutoukou, Qingdaokou, Jijiakou, etc., and coastal cities like Dengzhou, Fushan, Laizhou, etc., became prosperous, which made it possible for Shandong's economic center to move eastward. After opening to foreign trade, Shandong's coastal areas not only established direct trade relationships with overseas market, but also, with the development of cargo shipping, further extended trade relationships with the major domestic port cities. The opening of Qingdao-Jinan Railroad in 1902 tied Shandong's inland with its coastal areas, and established a closer relationship with foreign markets, which proves the irreplaceable position of Shandong's coastal areas in linking inland and foreign market. In the beginning of 20th century, Shandong's coastal areas started to own their earliest modern industry, which not only made the material basis of modernization, but also established Shandong's coastal areas as the economic center within the province.By the ending of the 19t...