Sino-Africa Interdependencies

This thesis studies an element of Sino-Africa relationship history, in the period1976-2009. It primarily emphasizes a key complementary economic relationship between China and two of sub-Sahara African states (Nigeria and Angola). Essentially, the research undertakes a comparative study of Sino-Nigeria and Sino-Angola oil for infrastructure diplomacy as an important feature of Sino-Africa interdependent relationships. In spite of some challenges, the research shows that this is a logical outcome of a relationship that has been nurtured for centuries mainly on the basis of cooperation and interdependence, rather than imperialism.The nature of relations between China and African countries has been dynamic with very clear elements of profound transformations over time. Built on the foundation of socio-economic and political cooperation, the relationship has witnessed a changing pattern of development. From the solidarity that defined its early formal beginnings, as from mid1950s, to a period when relations were based on the Cold War politics, it became clear that ideology had displaced solidarity as the defining principle. With the collapse of the Cold War, the politics of ideology became irrelevant leading to a fundamental qualitative change in the principles and practice of China-Africa relations. The1989Tiananmen incident acted as a catalyst in reintegrating both sides in the mainstream of their foreign policy objectives, thereby signaling the emergence of a new era in which practical economic and politico-diplomatic capitals became vital influences on the development of relations. With the turn of the new millennium and the establishment of Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) in year2000, Sino-African relations experienced further transformations. Strengthened by periodic summits, it became more comprehensive and practical in its approach with promises of infinite potentials. In summary, the trend or trajectory of relations has been defined mainly by solidarity, ideology, economic, political, diplomatic and socio-cultural factors. Oil for infrastructure diplomacy is a very important element of this relationship in the contemporary period requiring a systematic study, hence the need for this study.The research is organized in five chapters, but preceded with an introductory preface titled Background of the study. This section addresses the methodology and fundamental rationale that underscores the research. Review of related literatures and theoretical framework are also part of this introductory background.After the background, the first chapter captures the Historical evolution of Sino-Africa relation from the earliest period. It starts with the nature of China-Africa relations between the Chinese feudal dynasties and African pre-colonial societies, especially those that existed in the East African region nearest to the Indian Ocean. It examines how trade, diplomacy, friendship and cultural exchanges dominated their interactions and further laid the foundation of today’s cooperation. The chapter progresses to discuss the development of relations during the post-colonial period, after a period of recession in their relationship. Perhaps, but for the intervening periods of colonialism and other forms of external influences, it is possible that this evolving relationship between the two sides would have continued uninterrupted. However, based on the efforts of leaders from both China and Africa, contacts were reestablished after the colonial era. In fact, the role of China in this regard is very remarkable, because it actively participated in Africa’s decolonization process and played a pivotal role in rallying the leaders of Africa and Asia at the famous Bandung conference of1955where Afro-Asia sentiments dominated discussions. At that time, the Cold War was ongoing. This chapter also studies the dimensions of relations during the Cold War years, up to the new millennium. Its shows how and why the importance of ideology waned while that of practical cooperation waxed in the post-Cold War era, following the review of China’s Africa policy as from1989. This was an important watershed in the history of China-Africa relations. Before the conclusion, the chapter also focuses on the significance of their relations in the new millennium with the founding of FOCAC in year2000.Chapter two examines Sino-Nigeria oil-for-infrastructure diplomacy. Before delving into the main discourses of this chapter, it provides a general idea of the China-Nigeria history from1971when both countries formally established diplomatic relations. From its humble but intermittent beginnings to one of complex engagements, their relationship history has been rather eventful. It is in the context of this evolving relationship that their oil for infrastructure engagements must be understood. This chapter takes a look at the philosophy and strategic importance of the engagements and shows how both sides benefit from their ties on the basis of their respective strengths and advantages. This theme runs through the chapter as it chronologically traces the history of Sino-Nigerian oil for infrastructure diplomacy from its early beginnings. It must be noted that with Nigeria’s return to democracy in1999, President Olusegun Obasanjo’s drive to reform a country that has been neck-deep into military dictatorship for years led to a robust engagements with Asia, particularly China. This paved the way for more engagements especially as it concerns the oil for infrastructure diplomacy. The arc (defined mostly by achievements, challenges and prospects) of this engagement within the wider framework of China-Nigeria bilateral history also constitute a major aspect of the chapter, before its conclusion.Similarly, chapter three is devoted to the study of Sino-Angola oil-for-infrastructure diplomacy. This chapter first provides a historical background to the Sino-Angolan engagements. It further studies the philosophy and significance of the economic policy. It shows that Angola’s emergence from a civil war, the need to reconstruct the battered country as well as China need for Angola’s resources represent the overriding factors that sustained their oil for infrastructure policy. The chapter further traces the history of this policy and highlights the major actors, implementation processes and strategies. Here, it is demonstrated that leadership and social stability played pivotal roles. This is because not only were leadership in the country less frequently changed, the relative social stability that characterized the period when the policy was undergoing implementation, among other factors, aided the process greatly. Deriving from the historicity of the foregoing, the impacts, problems and prospects of the economic policy is captured in the discussions.Titled Oil-for-infrastructure diplomacy:A comparative analysis of Sino-Nigeria and Sino-Angola engagements, chapter four attempts a comparative analysis of Sino-Nigerian and Sino-Angola case studies. It proceeds by comparing the objectives, philosophies, strategies and rules of engagement applied during projects execution in both cases. It compares the place of politics, leadership, project management, etc. and their influences within the general framework of the policy implementation process, both in Nigeria and Angola. This comparative review reveals the peculiarity of the two African countries, the forces at work in them, how both cases performed, what factors shaped their performance profiles and why their degrees of success/failures differ. From this comparative study, a clear picture of the progress, problem and prospects of the policy emerges. The theme of the concluding chapter is An analysis of international response to China’s African Policy and Strategy. First, it reviews the historical foundations of China’s Africa strategy and looks at how this strategy influences socio-economic activities in the continent, and the reactions that it elicits. It presents the China’s African Policy whitepaper as released in January2006and offers a general assessment of Africa’s response to the emerging co-operations. This is followed by the international reactions to China’s Africa diplomacy particularly the Western views. In reviewing China’s Africa policy further, the chapter gauges contending views of the policy vis-a-vis the findings of the research to establish whether development or exploitation defines the underlying principle driving the policy. Based on the available evidence, the study makes its recommendations and conclusion.