| "Wenren youmu"(文人游幕),literally translated as "the literati assuming employment in various tents/offices", was a common phenomenon in the Qing dynasty. Many of the itinerant literati, scholars and dramatists entered the offices of the governors or various governmental departments at the provincial and local level (known as mufu幕府)to become muyou幕友,a post of similar nature to that of a private secretary. Their major duties included assisting the host/employer (muzhu幕主)with the management of official chores such as handling official documents and correspondence, marking examination scripts, drawing up military strategies and plans, and compiling historical records as well as local chronicles. On top of these normal chores, some of them were assigned additional responsibilities such as handling matters concerning stage performances, writing and composing new plays and taking up work related to the revision and enhancement of existing scripts. It is this involvement of the "muyou" in the field of classical drama, which began as part of their job requirement, that is the focal point of this thesis. The main objective of the present thesis, therefore, is to examine the relationship between classical Chinese drama and the activities of the literati as "muyou"or "private secretaries" during the Qing dynasty. In-depth investigations on the interaction and mutual influence between the "muyou"/dramatists and their hosts will be carried out, and particular attention will also be given to exploring the significance given to the dramatists as a result of their youmu activities which provided them new visions about locality and country.This thesis is arranged over five chapters, with an introduction. The first chapter traces the emergence and development of the phenomenon of "wenren youmu". As the first chapter, it provides the necessary background by expounding on the reasons for the increase in the number of the literati seeking employment as "muyou"from the perspectives of political need and weaknesses of the imperial examination system. It explores the employment pattern of the literati, in particular those who were involved in the field of drama in the Qing dynasty, and links it to the activities of "youmu". The common features of this new phenomenon and the new social group as well as the nature of their work are also discussed.The second chapter gives emphasis to a particular "Bureau of Drama" in Yangzhou. This Bureau launched a drama event of the largest scale and on the highest level in the history of Chinese classical drama, which involved the participation of a great number of the literati who were assembled to carry out work on the revision and enhancement of drama scripts. This chapter describes in detail the contribution of a government official YiLinga who had hired around a hundred candidates from the literati to work in the Bureau of Drama from the beginning of 1780. Scripts from the Qing dynasty were collected for the project. During the process some scripts were re-written or amended to suit the regime. The structure of the Bureau of Drama, the different groups of "muyou" and their expertise and the manner in which the Bureau of Drama influenced the different groups of muyou on a collective as well as individual level are analyzed under three separate sub-titles. The analysis paints a clear picture of the multi-level, highly complicated entanglement between the Bureau/the authority and the individual muyou/common people who possessed different visions and views regarding art and drama. To a large extent, the analysis also resolves many doubts regarding the conflicts which existed between them.Chapter Three examines how individual script writers can be influenced by their hosts and also their own experiences from working as "muyou". Since the nature and literary inclination of the different mufu were determined mainly by their hosts, three such persons are identified for further analysis, namely: Wu Xingzuo, Tang Ying and Lu Jianceng. All three were government officials who had cultivated great interest for classical drama and poems. They held high respect for talented dramatists and were willing to provide support whenever the need arose. As a result, many talents were drawn to become a "muyou" under their roofs. Conditions were favorable for the genre of drama to prosper. Drama activities and literary gatherings were organized regularly, thus providing opportunities for the newly composed tunes to be sung and performed on stage. There were a plethora of events occurring whereby writers could meet up for fruitful discussions, to voice out their opinions on drama, or to seek sponsorship to get their works published. The important role played by the hosts and consequently the whole "youmu" experience in promoting drama cannot be denied.The discussion takes on a different perspective in Chapter Four where the focus is shifted from the hosts to the literati. Taking the case of Ji Yongren and Shen Qifeng as examples, an attempt is made to explore how the lives and works of dramatists can be affected by their youmu activities and vice-versa. Ji Yongren’s fate changed after he joined his host as a muyou. This change has been reflected clearly in his plays, through which he channeled his sorrow, anger, disappointment, love and hatred towards his homeland. His experience as a mouyu enriched his plays, however this also brought him much misfortune and eventually led to his death. Shen Qifeng deviated from his original path after he was recruited as muyou and became famous to write palace plays favored by the authorities. Nevertheless his youmu life did not bring him happiness. He took no initiative towards his plays and deep within he yearned to revert to his former simple life style of a Confucian scholar.Further examples in Chapter Five and Chapter Six are utilized to examine thoroughly and assess the extent to which youmu life could affect the types of plays to be written as a result of new inspirations and viewpoints being acquired by the dramatists regarding locality and nation and regarding the new environment. In Chapter Five, Huang Xieqing’s "youmu" life is explored. He meditated on the fate and the various problems faced by the nation and had vividly reflected his thoughts into his plays. Huang Xieqing exerted great influence on other dramatists, among them being the outstanding Xu Er who is included for further discussion. Chapter Six focuses on Yang Enshou’s "youmu" experience and his observations on local drama.In the concluding chapter, the significance and value of "youmu" is re-emphasized. The individual gains and losses acquired by the dramatists which is brought about by their "youmu" experience is summarized. As a whole, it can be said that mufu played a vital role and is the most important element of the "youmu" phenomenon, as mufu had built up the dramatist community and enriched drama during the Qing dynasty. |
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