A THIRST FOR GLORY: MUSSOLINI, THE ITALIAN MILITARY AND THE FASCIST REGIME, 1922-1936

Italy's defeat in World War II sprang from Mussolini's relations with the Italian military. This relationship derived from institutions inherited from Piedmont. Cavour captured control of diplomacy from the monarchy but left the Army under royal domination. While Piedmont, and then Italy, pursued expansion, the Army stressed dynastic loyalty over military efficiency. Foreign and military policies remained uncoordinated. Repeated military defeats and growing antipathy between generals and politicians resulted.Mussolini's efforts at military reform, creation of the Fascist Militia and his attempt to impose political control over the Army created conflicts. Mussolini founded the Air Force as a Fascist service. Balbo caused the Air Force to favor propaganda displays over military effectiveness.Mussolini failed to reorient the Army from Alpine warfare toward Mediterranean aggrandizement. Nonetheless, he prepared for expansion by pacifying Libya and Somalia, while planning to conquer Ethiopia.By 1933, Mussolini grew powerful enough to appoint a Fascist military leadership over the Army. He began plotting the dismemberment of Yugoslavia and Ethiopia. Hitler's rise created opportunity and danger. After considerable maneuver, Mussolini agreed with the French to oppose Germany and respect Yugoslav integrity, while receiving permission to invade Ethiopia.The Army won its first great victory in 1918. Disappointed with the peace settlement and fearing civilian control, the Army sought alliance with Fascism. Once Mussolini accepted Army autonomy, the generals allowed him to seize power.Early rearmament allowed Mussolini simultaneously to contain Germany and attack Ethiopia. He manipulated his generals to gain control of the African campaign and to achieve coordination of foreign and military policies. Confrontation with Britain terrified the armed forces. Mussolini responded forcefully, solidifying his domination over the military.The Ethiopians proved better prepared than expected, coming close to victory. However, a huge arms build-up allowed Mussolini to crush his opponents.This convinced Mussolini of his military genius and of the effectiveness of his armed forces. Actually, the war revealed many military shortcomings though victory obscured them. The 1935-36 expenditures drained the armed forces. Fascist rhetoric overwhelmed doctrinal development. Mussolini's ignorance prevented him from directing the military properly. His stress on politics over military preparations led to the defeats of 1940-41.